The impact of environmental factors on the economy. Review of socio-economic indicators, including the impact of the environmental factor

IMPACT OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR ON THE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE BAIKAL REGION

Consumer pressure of the Earth's population (industrial consumption natural resources) becomes close to the ability of self-reproduction of nature. Wars, weapons testing, irrational use of the planet's resources lead to serious violations of the ecological system, both for local areas and on a regional and global scale. Environmental problems are global. A person in his activity must measure the scale of the changes made with their expediency.

Russia is a unique country. The largest state in the world has colossal reserves of mineral and energy resources. It ranks first in the world in terms of forest area, has 20% of the world's timber reserves, lakes contain 25% of the world's unfrozen fresh water. "Sacred Sea" Baikal is 23 thousand cubic meters. km of fresh water, i.e. strategic resource. The unique economic and environmental situation in the country in the Baikal region (BR) requires, based on the analysis of the world experience of developed and developing countries, a special approach to solving environmental and economic problems, which is associated with the "Baikal" factor.

The “Baikal” factor is a legally established special regime of nature management in the Baikal basin, which strictly regulates all types and objects of life, including the tourist and recreational sphere. Important elements that determine economic situation and affecting the ecological situation in the region are the forest and the world's largest supply of fresh water, as well as the presence of the most valuable large mineral deposits in the territory of the BR.

Analysis and generalization of foreign and domestic theoretical approaches and practices of nature management made it possible to identify the factors influencing sustainable social and environmental-economic development, national security and competitiveness of the economy. Models for analyzing the impact of the environmental factor on economic performance are based on theories of economic development. The technogenic type involves the development of the economy without taking into account environmental restrictions. Adoption of the concept of protection environment(1972) stabilized the ecological situation, but the economy is aimed at increasing human well-being, and not at improving the quality of his life. Adoption of the concept of sustainable economic development(1992) set before the world community the task of limiting production and consumption in the economically developed countries, restrictions

population growth in developing countries; and reducing disparities between developed and developing countries.

Criteria and limitations of the concept:

1. The extraction of non-renewable resources is normative and limited.

2. Exploitation of renewable resources within the framework of reproduction.

3. Technologies that replace non-renewable resources with inexhaustible ones.

4. Pollution of the planet with waste should not exceed the level of 1992.

5. Resource-saving technologies, use of secondary raw materials.

6. State investment in environmentally friendly, knowledge-intensive industries.

7. Active ecological upbringing and education.

Theorists see the next stage as the stage of connection of the laws of nature with the laws of thinking and socio-economic laws - the idea of the noosphere of Academician V.I. Vernadsky as a transition to sustainable human activity. The processes that influenced the development of world thought in the field of the relationship of the environmental factor with the country's economy and global problems were supported by the results of forecasting natural resources. The following models were used.

1. The model of Malthus (1798) predicted the impossibility of providing the population of the planet with elementary products. As a result - epidemics, wars, disasters. The way out is the transition to new technologies, the expansion of acreage and the growth of mining.

2. The dynamic model of J. Forrester (1970) indicated collapse as a result of population growth, environmental degradation and resource depletion. The way out is the need to stabilize population growth, resource consumption, and improve the quality of life.

3. Dynamic model of D.Kh. and D.L. Medouzov (1972) predicted catastrophes by the middle of the 21st century. Exit - "zero growth".

4. The model of M. Mesarovic and E. Pestel (1974) is aimed at taking into account the relationship between environmental factors and economic growth, which is necessary for any activity.

5. Mathematical model of the biosphere "Gaia" N.N. Moiseeva provided for the development of scenarios for climate change on the planet due to human activities, which stimulated the adoption of political decisions to reduce nuclear weapons and emissions.

The result of the analysis of the models was the conclusion about the catastrophic future of the Earth. To mitigate (further reduce to zero) the negative impact of the environmental factor, methods have been proposed that come down to determining economic damage and developing measures to prevent a negative impact on nature.

Economic damage is determined by pollution of the environment, the costs of compensating for the impact of the polluted environment that has already been carried out and for preventing a new negative environmental impact.

In different regions, economic damage and its minimization have an individual set of factors. Experience reviewed different regions in response to the specifics of environmental crises: USA (Alaska); Japan (Hiroshima); European Union (UK and Germany); China; Russia.

Economic damage is taken into account when calculating GRP / GDP, since it reduces the indicator (GRP - gross regional product).

USA, Alaska-GRP $42 billion

Socio-environmental and economic problems: oil spills, military air bases, melting polar ice, decline in production, cancer and other diseases.

Economic damage - $7.6 billion.

Ways to solve problems: environmental landings, public activity, fines, allocation of $ 2.52 billion from the permanent fund for the introduction of eco-innovations.

Japan, Hiroshima-GRP $102.8 billion, Nagasaki $93.6 billion.

Socio-ecological and economic problems: the state of nature and public health after the atomic bombings of 1945, limited territory and resources, the impact of industrial emissions.

Economic damage - up to $2 billion.

Ways to solve problems: creation of a technology park in Hiroshima - $35 billion, transition to an energy efficient policy. In eco-business, compliance with 5R: refine (cleaning), reduce (reduction), recycle (recycling), reuse (reuse), reconvert energy (energy reconversion).

EU, UK - $2,198 billion GDP, Germany - $3,235 billion.

Socio-ecological and economic problems: limited resources, food and energy security, chronic diseases caused by pollution of soil, atmosphere, water, deforestation.

Economic damage - more than $163 billion.

Ways to solve problems: active introduction of renewable energy sources (RES), improvement of fuel quality, transition to highly environmentally friendly technologies in all spheres of life, an active position of the public, forest plantations, corporate responsibility.

China - GDP $4,758 billion

Socio-ecological and economic problems: demographic and food problems, catastrophic pollution of soil, water and air, deforestation, GMOs, an increase in the number of severe chronic diseases.

Economic damage - $176 billion.

Ways to solve problems: active introduction of renewable energy sources, transition to electric vehicles, hybrids, application of the latest technologies in all areas, soil restoration, forest plantations.

Russia - GDP $1255 billion

Socio-ecological and economic problems: degradation of nature, high energy and resource intensity of production, extinction of the population as a consequence

the effect of staying below the line of food, environmental and other types of national security.

The economic damage has not been officially assessed by experts.

Ways to solve problems: programs to improve energy efficiency and resource saving, transition to new cleaning and environmentally friendly technologies.

The following mechanisms have shown the effectiveness in increasing the environmental and economic sustainability of the region:

1) a system of legal, economic and technological measures - strict environmental legislation, tax incentives, subsidies, active introduction of innovations;

2) the main drivers of the process of implementing eco-innovations are the active position of the public and the high level of corporate social responsibility, governmental support.

As a result, an increase in average life expectancy, GRP / GDP and average per capita income, the active introduction of environmental innovations: in energy, industry, agro-industrial complex, transport, infrastructure, medicine, science and education.

The maximum environmental effect is observed in the EU countries,

maximum economic efficiency in Japan and China.

The structure of environmental costs: 8% - the state, 85% - business, 7% - specialized environmental service providers.

The latest technology and environmentally friendly products increase added value, competitiveness, improve conditions and quality of life, and ensure national security.

World experience has shown a reduction in emissions by an average of 23%, an increase in implemented eco-innovations by 2 times and, of course, a direct positive economic effect1.

The Environmental Cleanliness Index (CSI) is calculated as the ratio of the share of environmentally friendly products and technologies in GRP / GDP to GRP / GDP and affects the assessment of global competitiveness. “We evaluate not only GDP growth, but also the quality of life and the state of the environment,” commented Stefan Garelli, IMD professor and director of the World Competitiveness Center2.

Switzerland - 1st place,

USA - 2nd place (IEC - 0.2),

Singapore - 3rd place,

Germany - 7th place (IEC - 0.6),

Japan - 8th place (IEC - 0.8),

Great Britain - 13th place (IEC - 0.6),

China - 29th place (IEC - 0.09),

Russian Federation - 63rd place (IEC - 0.07).

An analysis of the relationship between the country's competitiveness and the level of environmental cleanliness of production shows that the correlation level (0.7) demonstrates a significant direct and indirect impact of the environmental cleanliness index on the assessment of countries' competitiveness. Given the high level of environmental pollution, the importance of the level of environmental cleanliness in assessing competitiveness will grow.

Focusing on the Baikal region, we took as a basis the strategic task set by the Government of the Russian Federation to raise the competitiveness of the region to the level of the countries of the Asia-Pacific region3. The too low level of development of the Baikal region (even compared to the average Russian one) does not allow the Asia-Pacific countries to consider it as an equal and competitive partner, which Russia would like to see this region in strategic geopolitical and innovative terms.

Among the factors that can affect the sustainable development of the BR, we highlight the following.

Negative influence:

The harsh climate, the remoteness of the region - this is an additional cost of resources;

Economic damage from the influence of environmental and "Baikal" factors - 23.5 billion rubles;

Outdated technologies, low rates of introduction of new technologies;

Food dependence - own provision by 60%;

Policy of double standards - BKTSB, BYAT;

Output tax base FPC from the region.

Competitive advantages:

Profitable geographical position to increase foreign economic activity;

Large reserves of available and predictable minerals;

Strong industrial potential;

Unique forest, water and recreational resources;

A large transport and logistics complex of international importance;

Developed scientific and educational complex - Technopark of ISTU, East Siberian agrotechnopark, Baikal Institute of Nature Management SB RAS;

Experience in implementing renewable energy sources;

The ecological cleanliness of Lake Baikal is a global strategic advantage for the region and the country as a whole.

An analysis of the considered factors determines the possibilities for the development of the Baikal region according to one of the following scenarios.

1. Inertial - continuation of the existing trends in the socio-economic development of Russia.

2. Energy and raw materials - new industrialization. Implementation of major projects in the energy sector, mining of raw materials with moderate pace development of processing industries, innovation and investment.

3. The innovative scenario of balanced development is the most full use competitive advantages, active support of vital industries. This will make it possible for the region's economy to become a market (concept, strategy and program for the development of the BR and the Far Eastern Federal District with the allocation of priority development zones).

The strategy for the development of the Baikal region until 2025 provides for its division into 5 zones. We propose to single out 8 zones of advanced development of the BR:

1 - innovation cluster (Irkutsk agglomeration);

2 + 3 + 4 - industrial belt (Bratsko-Ust-Ilimsk agglomeration + Lena-Angara Baikal region + Trans-Baikal mining agglomeration);

5 - tourist and recreational zone;

6 - agro-industrial zone;

7 - zone of immersion in the culture and business environment of the partner countries;

8 - Tibetan medicine.

The agricultural regions of the BR are adjacent to the Buryat and Zabaikalsky agricultural regions, with which they have similarities in natural-climatic, demographic, environmental, financial and technological factors. The priority task is to ensure the food security of the region. The ruble in agriculture can give 2.5 rubles. in the agro-industrial complex and at least 4 rubles. in related industries. The creation of an agro-technopark in the Irkutsk region will provide BR with new-generation domestic sowing, harvesting and processing equipment. Joint development of agricultural areas in breeding, biotechnology, melioration and fertilizers is already leading to an increase in the share of the agro-industrial complex in GRP.

We propose to create a zone of immersion in the culture and business environment of partner countries (7) on the border with the Far East and Asia-Pacific regions. Despite the annual graduation of several thousand specialists focused on working with the Asia-Pacific countries, mutual understanding of business partners at the cultural level remains problematic. The creation of a center for improving the acquired knowledge in the practice of negotiations, role-playing games, cultural events between students and entrepreneurs from Russia and the Asia-Pacific countries will help not only to reveal creative potential participants of the events, but also to eliminate the language barrier, strengthen trade, economic, scientific and educational ties with immersion in the business environment of the innovative economy through cultural ties. This will strengthen the con-

competitiveness in terms of human capital, will attract investments, will contribute to long-term productive cooperation based on established business and friendly ties.

It is proposed to allocate Tibetan medicine to the priority development zone (8), since high-quality natural material for the production of medicines under the brand of environmentally friendly raw materials BPT, treatment courses based on centuries-old knowledge and methods of traditional medicine, combined with modern technologies, will improve the quality of health local population and visiting tourists.

The predicted socio-economic indicators calculated by the Center for Strategic Development of Russia and the Ministry of Regional Development (with an investment in the BR of $600 billion, or 1 trillion rubles per year), on which the strategy and development programs of the BR4 are built, give a chance to reach the following socio-economic indicators by 2025 G.:

Average growth rates of GRP - 6.2%;

GRP per capita - $23 thousand;

The average life expectancy is 72 years;

Provision of housing - 32 sq. m per person;

The share of the high-tech sector, the knowledge economy - 40% of GRP;

Share of innovative products - 55-60% of GRP;

The share of BR in the world economy is 1.8-2%.

To complete the task, you must:

1) eliminate the policy of double standards;

2) increase the scope of public-private partnerships;

3) to fully finance specific programs and projects, taking into account the zoning of the region.

The model of sustainable ecological and economic development of the BR that we have developed is based on the development human potential and includes a comprehensive solution of socio-ecological and economic problems through the interaction of the following factors:

1. Adopt a clearly defined legislative framework, tax incentives and zoning BR will attract investors. The creation of priority development zones will allow the BR to overcome socio-economic backwardness and preserve its unique properties.

2. Public-private partnership will enable high level solve tasks in accordance with priority.

3. The creation of clusters, technology parks will allow to produce environmentally-oriented products, increase value added and GRP, improve the health of residents, and increase the competitiveness of the region.

4. New inventions and technologies will stimulate the development of eco-business and renewable energy, resource conservation, which will lead to the solution of the issue of distribution

division of natural, resource and intellectual rent, activates the public, whose position will influence the factors described.

5. Removing the problem of food security through the development of the agro-industrial complex and an active foreign trade strategy will be based on the brand of an environmentally friendly and competitive product from the BR, which will affect the improvement of the quality of human potential.

Analysis and generalization of foreign and domestic theoretical provisions and practical experience in rational environmental management showed that National security and the competitiveness of the economies of states are determined by the level of use of environmental innovations in all spheres of life, including science and education, energy, industry, agriculture, transport, infrastructure and communications.

The factor of an active position in society regarding the right to health and quality of life has a direct impact on the foreign environmental policy adopted by the government. Unfortunately, in Russia environmental organizations do not have a strong influence, momentary economic benefit becomes more important for them than the health of the population and the future of the country. The level of corporate responsibility in European, American and Japanese companies is an order of magnitude higher, although there are already qualitative shifts in the minds of Russian government and business leaders who are jointly introducing economic innovations into production. In developed countries, entrepreneurs have long realized the benefits of using clean technologies. In developing and new industrialized countries environmental policy is more flexible, but business has not reached such a level of responsibility as in developed countries. Meanwhile, there are obvious improvements and advances in the field of ecology (Singapore, Taiwan).

Notes

1 Rosstat: http://www.gks.ru/ National statistical services: USA, Japan, Germany, Great Britain, China.

2 World Economic Forum. http://www.weforum.org/documents/GCR09/index.html

3 Official portal of the Irkutsk region: http://www.irkobl.ru/economy/ecology/ situation/

4 Strategy for the socio-economic development of the Far East and the Baikal region for the period up to 2025 http://www.garant.ru

The article deals with the problem of the influence of the economy on the ecology of Russia. The purpose of the article is to consider the impact of industrial areas on the environment. The article also provides analytical data on the volume of production and consumption waste in the country for 2016.

The influence of economic factors on architecture and urban planning
Methodological approaches to assessing the competitiveness of a product, organization and industry
Human capital as a key factor in the country's competitiveness
Economic resources. Resource constraints

The state of ecology is an urgent problem of our time, because the anthropogenic impact on the atmosphere with evolution
scientific and technological progress has reached its maximum level. Ecological situation modern Russia leaves much to be desired. Mainly the ecology of the country, as well as the ecology of the whole world, is influenced by the economy.

The contradiction between the conditioned possibilities of the natural environment and the vast possibilities for the development of production has assumed a critical situation. As a result, technical prerequisites arise for creating new conditions for mutually beneficial relations between man and nature. “The rate of change in the biosphere goes along with the acceleration of the development of society. And the most important feature of the scientific and technological revolution is that for the first time in the interaction of society with nature, the ultimate mediation of all natural factors of production has been achieved, and thus fundamentally new opportunities have opened up for the further development of society as a consciously controlled and regulated process.

Pollution of the biosphere occurs through the release of substances, both from natural sources and, to a greater extent, from artificial, that is, man-made. Natural sources of pollution are forest fires, decomposition of terrestrial organisms, weathering, dust storms; technogenic - industries.

The remnants of the production of energy companies affect the environment in different ways: they pollute the air space with combustion products, stimulate thermal pollution of the atmosphere, pollute water bodies with sewage water, and aggravate the environmental condition of hydroelectric power stations.

Ferrous metallurgy is one of the main areas of the industrial ensemble of the Russian Federation. It includes the mining of ferrous metal ores, their enrichment and agglomeration, the extraction of non-metallic material for ferrous metallurgy, the production of pig iron, etc. Ferrous metallurgy is considered one of the largest environmental polluters. More slag per unit of smelted metal than in ferrous metallurgy is formed in nonferrous metallurgy. Ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy have an impact on the pollution of atmospheric air, surface and ground waters, and soils.

Oil production in the Russian Federation has declined since the early 1990s, but there has been no significant improvement in the environment. Significant air pollutants generated during oil production are hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, solids, as well as sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, etc.

The chemical and petrochemical industries represent a complex industrial complex. The pollution of atmospheric air, surface waters and soils by dioxins and dioxin-like toxicants by enterprises of the complex poses a particular threat.

Mechanical engineering, which plays the main role in industry, is a complex and diverse industry, containing several hundred different types of industries. Mechanical engineering pollutes the water basin sewage electroplating industries.

Emissions from light industry enterprises contain: sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, solids, nitrogen oxides, fuel and other substances that adversely affect any water bodies.

The food industry is focused on product processing Agriculture, sea and river fishing, food production. The impact of food industry items on the air space is due to the fact that in emissions, in addition to harmful substances common to industry, there are strong-smelling elements, dry products of animal origin, and carcinogens.

The use of heavy machinery in agriculture causes not only a violation of the soil layer, but also compaction of cultivated areas, clogging of pores, resulting in a decrease in moisture capacity, aggravated supply of oxygen to the soil, its fertility decreases, the area of degrading agricultural land increases, and man-made desertification of lands intensifies.

The road transport complex contains all types of vehicles, companies and organizations transport complex. Vehicle emissions are dangerous not only because they contain a large number of poisonous elements, but also because they instantly enter the active zone of the biosphere: they are at the level of human breathing.

Without the development of industries, the development of the country is impossible, which is a depressing fact for the environment. Based on the foregoing, we can conclude that the anthropogenic pressure on nature, the wasteful use of natural resources without an effective environmental and economic policy can lead to global environmental problems. Without the proper organization of nature management, the renewal of natural resources by technological means and the conservation of non-renewable resources, harmony between man and nature is impossible.

According to the official site Federal Service State statistics in the first place in the ranking of the most polluted cities in Russia is Norilsk. In this city, pollution is associated with the operation of the largest Norilsk Nickel complex. This enterprise emits 2 million tons of atmospheric pollution per year, which is almost 100% of all city emissions. On the second place - Moscow. The total annual emissions are 995.4 thousand tons, of which 92.8% are from cars. The third city in terms of environmental situation is St. Petersburg. The annual emission of atmospheric pollution of the cultural capital is 488.2 thousand tons, of which 85.9% are automobile emissions. Next comes Cherepovets. The total annual volume of emissions is 364.5 thousand tons, 95% comes from stationary sources, and the Severstal metallurgical plant makes the main contribution to air pollution.

According to the official website of the Central Office of Rosprirodnadzor in 2016, 5,060.3 million tons of production and consumption waste (including hazardous 110.1 million tons) were generated in Russia, and 2,685.1 million tons were used and neutralized. 45.8 million tons of waste was generated in the agriculture, hunting and forestry sector, 4653.0 million tons in mining. In manufacturing - 282.9 million tons, in the production and distribution of electricity, gas and water - 26.4 million tons. In the construction industry and the transport and communications industry - 17.1 million tons and 2.9 million tons, respectively. Also, in the provision of other communal, social and personal services, 5.0 million tons of production and consumption waste were generated.

Economic indicators are not imperfect and do not take into account the damage that is caused to the environment production activities person. Thus, we can say that in Russia the actions of the industrial complex in relation to the resources used are not regulated, resource-saving production is underdeveloped.

Bibliography

Volkov V.P., Ilyin A.I., Stankevich V.I. and others: Economics of the enterprise: textbook. Allowance: M.: New knowledge, 2003. 677 p.
Girusov E.V., Bobylev S.N., Novoselov A.L., Chepurnykh N.V. Ecology and economics of environmental management: textbook. 2nd ed., revised. and additional: M.: UNITI-DANA, Unity, 2003. 519 p.

The ecological functions of the geospheres considered above and the geoecological tasks arising from them are continuously modified under the influence of socio-economic factors. One of the main factors is population growth, its spatial distribution, age structure, migration and demographic policy.

Population growth rates lead to a sharp increase in the intensity of the use of the Earth's natural and economic resources. The importance of this factor was first drawn to the attention of Thomas Robert Malthus (1766-1834) - an English economist, theologian, priest, who in his work "Experience on the Laws of Population" in 1798 formulated two main provisions:

a) the growth of means of subsistence lags significantly behind the growth of population;
b) due to biological features people, the population multiplies exponentially, while the means of subsistence increase only in arithmetic.

These "laws" of T.R. Malthus were based, in turn, on the "law of diminishing soil fertility" of the French economist A.R.Zh. Turgot, according to which each additional investment of labor in the land gives a smaller effect compared to the previous investment, and after a certain limit, any additional effect becomes impossible.

The years that have passed since the publication of Malthus's work have generally confirmed the correctness of the main provisions of his theory. In 1994, 5 billion 500 million people lived on the globe. At the same rate of growth (150 people per minute), it was assumed that by the year 2000 6 billion people would live on Earth. Population growth is illustrated in Table. 2.2 According to forecasts World Bank, the population by 2050 should reach 8.3 billion people. Today, the number of people already exceeds 6 billion.

Rapid population growth is the result of a disproportion between births and deaths, i.e. the result of maintaining the birth rate and reducing the death rate due to improved living conditions and especially due to the development of medicine.

Table 2.2

The growth of the population of the Earth (according to F. Baade)

Hence the need to regulate the population, which has long been understood by the governments of a number of countries that have adopted appropriate laws.

An example of the connection of this factor with environmental problems is the demographic policy, traditions and mentality of the peoples of Uzbekistan, focused on population growth, and the ecological catastrophe of the Aral Sea, partly due to the need for extensive cultivation of irrigated lands in the Amudarya and Syrdarya river basins.

Significant differences in the rate of natural population growth between developed and economically underdeveloped countries are also well known. So, if in Europe the average annual rate of natural population growth is 0.8%, then in countries Latin America- 2.3%, in Africa - 3% (with a trend of increasing growth rates), and in Asia - 2.3% (with a trend of increasing growth rates). These three continents, where developing countries are mainly located, are home to 74% of the world's population, and at the end of the 20th century. in them, according to some forecasts, even 81% of the population will live. In these countries, the population is becoming more and more numerous, and in the structure of the population a high proportion is occupied by persons under 15 years of age, which indicates that the birth rate of the population continues to grow,

The problems of population size and density, as well as human adaptation in conditions of high density, also have another socio-economic side. There are so-called physical borders, in which only a certain number of people can live on Earth. As you know, a person processes energy in the course of his life, which leads to the release of a certain part of the heat due to the processes of his vital activity. As a result, due to the increase in the number of people, for example, a “thermal limit” can be reached (thus, a population of one million people can produce heat that corresponds to the melting point of iron). Giant population growth would jeopardize this "thermal frontier". If the soaked demographic trends continue, then after 2060 all people will be in contact with each other and they will have to eat standing up.

However, it is unlikely that the required amount of food can be produced for so many people. Mankind already is currently facing shortage problems. About 20 million people die of starvation every year in the world, including 40 thousand children.

Another socio-economic factor is growth in the rate of consumption of natural resources.

Natural resources include means of subsistence not created by human labor and existing independently of it, but used by it. These include minerals, timber, water.

About 88% of the food consumed by a person comes from cultivated lands, 10% from natural pastures and forests, and only 2% from the oceans. At present, 56 % land surface. In the entire history of civilization, 2/3 of forests have been cut down, more than 200 species of animals and plants have been destroyed, oxygen reserves have decreased by 10 billion tons, and about 200 million hectares of land have been degraded as a result of improper, irrational management. In other words, the reserves are essentially exhausted.

The energy resources of the planet are being used up on an increasing scale. Of all the fuel burned in the history of mankind, half was in demand in the last 25 years. The general shortage of natural energy resources gives rise to the transition of a number of countries to the use of nuclear energy and, accordingly, an increase in the number of nuclear power plants, which entails well-known environmental problems associated with the disposal of radioactive waste (Table 2.3).

The extraction of 100 billion tons of mineral raw materials from the upper part of the lithosphere annually leads to the displacement and destruction of the fertile soil layer and a sharp reduction in forest area,

In addition to the nutritional problems that result from excessive population growth, an increase in population size and density leads to other problems.

Table 2.3

Share of different energy sources (in %) in the total balance

modern energy

Consequence demographic growth are the decline in the level of urban civilization, the degradation of human relations and crowd formation instead of citizens. Population density really has a negative effect on tolerance in relations between people. There are various deviations in the behavior of individuals as a result of overcrowding, which lead to asocial behavior.

The most important socio-economic factor is the scientific and technological revolution, which plays a certain role in the formation of the global environmental crisis.

The scientific and technological revolution, leading to the emergence of more and more new technologies, naturally entails the emergence of a variety of environmental problems.

So, for example, if in the XVIII century. mankind used only 18 chemical elements and their compounds, then in the nineteenth century. - 35, at the beginning of the 20th century. - 64, in 1975 -87, at present - all 104 elements of the D.I. Mendeleev. There is a real threat of depletion of mineral deposits. According to some forecasts, the reserves of many types of mineral raw materials will run out by 2050. The problem of finding substitutes inevitably arises, which creates a vicious circle of production and environmental problems.

Scientific and technical progress and scientific and technological progress also determine the emergence of a real threat of depletion of water and air. For economic activity a person uses about 12% of fresh water, not counting water polluted with solid impurities, the source of which is enterprises and transport. Every year, about 600 billion tons of industrial effluents are discharged into water bodies, requiring 12-15-fold dilution and neutralization. Despite the fact that 80% of fresh water is concentrated in glaciers and is present in the form of snow, the latter are also increasingly polluted by industrial emissions into the atmosphere.

Industrial processes and thermal power plants consume about 23% of the oxygen produced by plants. According to some estimates, by the year 2000, it will take 95 % oxygen generated by the flora of the planet.

Pollution of the geographic envelope and the geological environment with industrial emissions leads to the fact that the enrichment of living organisms with toxic elements that are not involved in the metabolism during their production inevitably occurs. life cycle(Table 2.4). The concentrations of toxicants in plants, algae, and other organisms are several orders of magnitude higher than their content in soils, natural waters, and air. The transition of these elements into the human food chain is natural, which negatively affects the duration of his life.

A powerful anthropogenic impact also leads to a violation of the heat balance of the Earth, to heat contamination of the atmosphere. The release of technogenic heat and an increase in the content of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere creates a greenhouse effect, which manifests itself in an increase in temperature near the day surface.

Table 2.4

There is a continuous violation of the ecological balance, both by "poverty pollution" - due to the use of technologically obsolete, imperfect industries, and "abundance pollution" - when even with modern environmentally friendly technologies, the burden on the environment is progressively growing due to the depletion of natural resources.

In addition to population growth, the progressive consumption of natural resources and the scientific and technological revolution, external debts are also a factor determining global environmental changes. states of the world.

A typical example is the situation with Russia at the end of the 20th century. Debts to individual countries and the world community represented by the International Monetary Fund, received in the form of various loans, are forcing Russia to increase the extraction and sale of mineral raw materials, the harvesting of commercial timber, and to accept radioactive and other harmful highly toxic industrial waste for storage and processing. This creates a set of environmental problems that have a direct impact on global environmental changes and form a global environmental crisis.

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ondiscipline"Nature Management"

ontopic" economicdevelopmentAndecologicalfactor"

economic development catastrophic externality

Introduction

Three factors of economic growth underlie any economic development: labor resources, artificially created means of production, natural resources. Recently, the environmental factor has become increasingly limiting economic development.

Modern environmental problems are to a certain extent generated by the backwardness of economic thought. Neither the classics of economic science A. Smith and D. Ricardo, nor subsequent economic schools and scientists, including K. Marx, D. Keynes, A. Marshall, did not attach importance to environmental restrictions in economic development. And only the 1970s, sharply exacerbating environmental problems, set before economic science the task of comprehending the current trends in environmental and economic development and developing fundamentally new concepts of development.

1. technogenictypeeconomicdevelopment

The modern type of ecological and economic development of the economy can be defined as a man-made type of economic development. This is a nature-intensive (nature-destroying) type of development based on the use of artificial means of production, created without taking into account environmental restrictions. Characteristic features of the technogenic type of development are the rapid and depleting use of non-renewable types of natural resources (primarily minerals) and the over-exploitation of renewable resources (soil, forests, etc.) at a rate exceeding the possibilities of their reproduction and restoration. At the same time, significant economic damage is caused, which is a cost estimate of the degradation of natural resources and environmental pollution as a result of human activity.

The technogenic type of economic development is characterized by significant external effects, in nature management they can be characterized as negative environmental and economic consequences of economic activity, which are not taken into account by the subjects of this activity.

There are various models of technogenic type of development. At present, there is a significant number of concepts and theories in this area. From the standpoint of environmental and economic policy, two such generalized models can be distinguished: the frontal economy and the concept of environmental protection.

Until the 1970s and 1980s, economic theory and practice focused on two factors of economic growth—labor and capital. Natural resources were assumed to be inexhaustible, and the level of their consumption in relation to the possibilities of their restoration and reserves was not considered among the determining parameters.

Out of consideration were the consequences of economic development in the form of various kinds of pollution, degradation of the environment and resources. The reverse influence, feedbacks between environmental degradation and economic development, the state of labor resources, and the quality of life of the population have not been studied either. Such an economic system, in which there are unlimited territories, resources, etc., is called a frontal economy or, according to the well-known definition of the American economist C. Boulding, "cowboy economy". The target function of such an economy can be defined in the words of I. Michurin: "We cannot expect favors from nature, it is our task to take them from her."

The essence of the concept of the frontal economy did not raise objections until the 1970s. And this is quite understandable, since unlimited economic growth, due to the relatively low level of development of productive forces, the biosphere's great self-regulation capabilities, did not cause global environmental changes. And only recently came the realization of the need for a radical change in economic views in the direction of taking into account the environmental factor. Such awareness is largely due to the deep destabilization of the state of the environment as a result of the gigantic development of productive forces, unprecedented population growth, which led to qualitative changes in the relationship between nature and society, and a huge increase in the load on ecosystems. Mankind must behave within multiple constraints, living in a closed and resource-poor system that Boulding likened to "spaceship Earth." The spacecraft is a closed system in which efforts must be made to recycle materials, reduce waste, safeguard exhaustible energy sources, and switch to potentially unlimited energy sources such as solar power.

Growing environmental tension, awareness of the danger of further development of the frontal economy forced many countries to try to take into account environmental factors. In this regard, a concept has appeared that can be quite approximately (due to the heterogeneity and features of various approaches within its framework) defined as the concept of environmental protection. A visible reaction to the growing environmental threat was the creation in more than a hundred countries state structures related to nature conservation. In our country, in 1988, the Committee for Environmental Protection was established, which was further transformed into the Ministry of Environmental Protection and Natural Resources. In the world, legislative activity has developed rapidly, associated with the adoption of laws and acts regulating the norms, procedures for nature management, giving guidelines declaring environmental principles. In Russia, a comprehensive law "On the Protection of the Environment" was adopted in 1991. Since the 70s. active international cooperation on environmental protection also began. Hundreds of multilateral and bilateral treaties have been adopted to regulate and regulate environmental management on an international scale.

Within the framework of the concept of environmental protection, some countries managed to achieve some environmental stabilization, but there was no qualitative improvement. This is largely due to the fact that the general ideology of this concept of ecological and economic development has not changed compared to the concept of the frontal economy. The interests of the economy, the maximum increase in production, the widespread use of the achievements of scientific and technological progress in order to better meet the needs of people are still put at the forefront. Under these conditions, environmental protection activities, the cost of environmental protection are presented as something opposed to economic growth. However, taking into account the environmental factor is already recognized as necessary, although it hinders economic development. The concept of environmental protection, like the concept of the frontal economy, is based on an anthropocentric approach. The need for environmental protection is based on the premise that environmental degradation harms people and hinders economic development. However, a real resolution of the contradiction between the economy and nature within the framework of this concept is impossible, as evidenced by the avalanche-like growth of environmental problems in the world.

2. Conceptsworlddevelopmentfromtaking into accountenvironmentalrestrictions

Economic development must take into account at least two increasingly clear constraints:

limited capacity of the environment to accept and absorb, assimilate various kinds of waste and pollution produced by economic systems;

finite nature of non-renewable natural resources.

The unrestrained development of the technogenic type of the world economy has led to the emergence of global environmental factors, each of which is capable of leading to the degradation of human civilization. Among these problems are: desertification (aridization), deforestation, raw materials, greenhouse effect, ozone layer, acid rain, fresh water shortage, pollution of the oceans, extinction of animal and plant species.

These global environmental problems are closely related to other global world problems, they influence each other and the occurrence of one leads to the emergence or exacerbation of others. For example, such a complex world problem how demographic, generated by the explosive growth of the world's population, leads to a sharp increase in the burden on the environment as a result of the increase in people's needs for food, energy, housing, manufactured goods, etc. It is obvious that without a solution demographic problem, without stabilization of the population it is impossible to restrain the development of crisis ecological processes on the planet. In turn, the environmental problems of desertification, deforestation, causing degradation and destruction of agricultural land, lead to an aggravation of the world food problem. As a result, about 20% of the world's inhabitants are constantly undernourished; every 24 hours, 35,000 people die of starvation, of which three-quarters are children under 5 years of age. Great ecological danger global problem like a military one. The 1991 Gulf War, with its colossal oil fires, further confirmed this.

Awareness of the catastrophic nature of the current type of economic development, the finiteness of natural resources and the interdependence of all environmental economic processes on our small planet was the most important reason for the beginning of the development of the concepts of world development. These developments began especially actively in the developed countries of the West, where in the 1970s the development of production began to run into limited natural resources.

The reports of the Club of Rome played a great role in the ecologization of world consciousness.

An important conclusion of the reports of the Club of Rome was the provision on the need to slow down growth and stabilize the population of the planet. Despite the reproaches of neo-Malthusianism, this conclusion reflects the current environmental and economic realities: with the current level of technological development, the limited reserves of natural resources, the Earth is not able to feed and meet the normal needs of a rapidly growing population.

In recent years, so-called extremist ecological and economic concepts have also appeared. The failure to bring about a radical change in the relationship between the economy and the environment led to the concept of the eco-fireplace. This is in its purest form the theory of every possible limitation of economic development, it is not even D. Meadows' zero growth, but rather negative growth. The main directions of this concept are: return to nature, biological and cultural diversity, simple technologies, rejection of scientific and technological progress that only destroys the environment, etc. In various types of ecotopia, much attention is paid to moral perfection, social, religious and spiritual aspects of human perfection. These concepts underlie the programs of the Green parties in many countries. In general, changing the priorities of economic development based on the concept of ecotopy seems unlikely. With the current level of technology, this type of development can lead to the curtailment of industry, an orientation towards subsistence agriculture, which will undoubtedly affect the lowering of the living standards of society. In terms of types of economic development, ecotopias are largely associated with the concept of strong sustainability.

3. sustainableeconomicdevelopment

Let us analyze in more detail the economic aspects of the concept sustainable development.

The traditional model of economic growth in industrialized countries has largely exhausted itself and cannot be offered as a model for other countries. This idea runs through the UN documents, many speeches at international conferences. In particular, they note that the Western model of development is no longer suitable for anyone, and the only way to solve global problems today is sustainable development. The current pattern of development and the corresponding patterns of production and consumption are not sustainable for rich countries and cannot be replicated by poor countries. This is evidenced at least by the fact that the consumption of natural resources and the volume of pollution per capita in developed countries exceed those in developing countries 20-30 times. In order for all countries of the world to achieve the level of development and consumption of advanced countries, it would be necessary to increase the use of natural resources and the amount of pollution by dozens of times, which is impossible due to limited resources and natural environmental restrictions.

That the prevailing type of development and its economic concept destabilize the environment, says the head of the country with the most powerful economy in the world. E. Gore, Vice President of the United States, in the book "The Earth on the Scale. Ecology and the Human Spirit" (1993) emphasized that it is necessary to change those features of our economic philosophy, which, as we know, are flawed, since they legitimize and even encourage destruction of the environment.

There are now more than 60 definitions of sustainable development in the literature. The most common definition given in the report of the Brundtland Commission:

Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains two key concepts:

the notion of needs, in particular the needs necessary for the subsistence of the poorest segments of the population, which should be the subject of first priority;

the notion of constraints, due to the state of technology and the organization of society, on the ability of the environment to meet present and future needs.

There are also more concise definitions of sustainable development, reflecting its individual important economic aspects. Among these definitions are the following:

development that does not place additional costs on future generations;

development that minimizes externalities, externalities between generations;

development that ensures constant simple and / or expanded reproduction of production potential in the future;

development in which humanity needs to live only on interest from natural capital, without affecting it itself (i.e., ensuring its at least simple reproduction, and not "eating away" the capital itself - a narrowed reproduction of natural capital, something like bank account, when man of sense tries to keep the fixed capital and live only on the interest from it).

The above definition of sustainable development can also be viewed through the lens of economic relations generations: within the current generation (in particular, the social aspect, the problem of poverty) and between generations (ecological and economic aspect).

Thus, the tasks of economic and social development should be determined taking into account its sustainability, compliance with the environmental imperative in all countries - developed and developing, countries with market and other types of economy.

The theory of sustainable development has become, perhaps, not only the most researched, rapidly developing and popular new theory last decade (hundreds of conferences, thousands of monographs, textbooks, etc.), but also a completely "practical" theory: everything developed states of the world expressed their desire to follow the direction of sustainable development. Practically all at least some kind of conceptual and "self-respecting" official state and international documents in recent years use the concept of sustainable development as a basic ideology.

Attention is also being paid to sustainable development in Russia. In development of the Decree of the President Russian Federation The Ministry of Economy of the Russian Federation prepared for the government the concept of sustainable development of Russia (1996-1997).

Central to the concept of sustainable development is the problem of taking into account the long-term environmental consequences of today's economic decisions. It is necessary to minimize negative environmental consequences, future externalities for future generations. You can’t live off your children and grandchildren, you can’t spend the natural pantry only for yourself. Thus, the problem of environmental restrictions, a compromise between current and future consumption should become the main one in the development of a long-term socio-economic development strategy for any country.

As human history shows, radical economic change recent years, projects and activities carried out in accordance with natural laws turn out to be cost-effective over a long time interval. And vice versa, economic projects that bring quick and significant benefits, but are carried out without taking into account long-term environmental consequences, externalities, often turn out to be unprofitable in the long run. Therefore, for a long period of time, the simple principle "what is ecological is economical" is very often true.

There are four criteria for sustainable development in the long term. This approach is based on the classification of natural resources and the dynamics of their reproduction.

The amount of renewable natural resources (land, forest, etc.) or their ability to produce biomass should at least not decrease over time, i.e. at least a simple reproduction mode should be provided. (For example, for land resources, this means maintaining the area of the most valuable agricultural land or, in the event of a decrease in their area, maintaining/increasing the level of agricultural production, forage potential of land for farm animals, etc.)

The maximum possible slowdown in the rate of depletion of non-renewable natural resources (for example, minerals) with the prospect of replacing them with other unlimited types of resources in the future. (For example, partial replacement of oil, gas, coal with alternative energy sources - solar, wind, etc.).

The possibility of minimizing waste through the introduction of low-waste, resource-saving technologies.

Environmental pollution (both total and by types) in the future should not exceed its current level. The possibility of minimizing pollution to a socially and economically acceptable level ("zero" pollution is unrealistic to expect).

These four criteria (there may be more) should be taken into account in the process of developing the concept of sustainable development. Taking them into account will save the environment for future generations and will not worsen the ecological living conditions.

Among economic indicators effective criteria for sustainable development is a decrease in the nature intensity of the economy and a structural indicator that reflects a decrease specific gravity products and investments of branches of nature exploiting sectors.

It should be noted the importance of changing consumer behavior of people. The transition to sustainable development involves limiting the need for goods and services, in contrast to technological development with its maximization of consumption, the further flourishing of the consumer society. The mottos "Consume more", "A car for each family member", etc., clearly conflict with the possibilities of the biosphere. Ecological upbringing and education are important for behavior change.

Even from the above brief consideration of the concept of sustainable development, one can see its global nature, the interweaving of the most complex environmental, economic, and social problems in this concept. The given definitions of sustainable development and its criteria are not universal due to the complexity of the phenomenon itself. Here we can recall the words of the famous physicist Niels Bohr that no complex phenomenon can be described using one language (that is, on the basis of any one interpretation or on the basis of one paradigm).

For a more detailed analysis of sustainable development, the concepts of weak sustainability and strong sustainability are used.

Supporters of strong sustainability take a tough, often "anti-economic" position on many issues of economic development: stabilization or reduction of the scale of the economy, the priority of direct regulation, severe restriction of consumption, etc. (proximity to the concept of ecotopy). Supporters of weak sustainability prefer modified economic growth, taking into account the ecological, "green" dimension of economic indicators, the widespread use of environmental and economic instruments (payment for pollution, etc.), changing consumer behavior, etc. With all the differences in positions, both of them oppose the technogenic concept of development, which is based on the unlimited development of the free market, focusing on purely economic growth, exploitation of natural resources, faith in the endless possibilities of scientific and technological progress, maximizing consumption, etc. (Of course, the supporters of the technogenic approach themselves they verbally advocate nature conservation, but their approaches and actions are often anti-environmental in nature).

The essential difference between the above three approaches is in relation to the possible replacement of natural capital with artificial (anthropogenic) one. To what extent is it possible to replace natural resources and goods with man-made means of production? The technogenic approach speaks of the endless possibilities of replacing natural capital as a result of the development of the free market and technological progress. Supporters of weak sustainability argue for the widest possibilities for such a replacement, but while maintaining the total aggregate capital stock. The concept of strong sustainability assumes only minimal possibilities for replacing natural capital with artificial capital.

An important direction in the development of development concepts should be the consideration of a holistic ecological and economic approach to economic growth, the change from a man-made type of development to a sustainable one. It is necessary to change the existing economic paradigm, new concepts of balanced and sustainable development to prevent global and local environmental crises.

In accordance with the above concepts, the economy in its ecological and economic development, as a rule, must go through three stages: frontal economy, economic development taking into account environmental protection, and sustainable development.

4. Kindsexternalities

An extremely important concept in the economics of environmental management is externalities (external effects). In the course of economic activity, there is a constant impact on nature, people, various objects, etc. With this influence, the emergence of externalities is associated. Externalities are external effects (or consequences) of economic activity that positively or negatively (more often) affect the subjects of this activity.

Let's assume that your country cottage area located in a swamp where it is impossible to build and grow anything. But you have a hardworking and wealthy neighbor who drains his land, creates drainage, fails the road, and so on. In this case, with a high degree of probability, your site will also become better, and you will be able to build a reliable home, grow your favorite flowers, use the neighbor's road, etc. Those. you get significant benefits from the neighbor's activities. This is an example of positive externalities.

Unfortunately, in nature conservation, the vast majority of environmental impacts are associated with negative external effects: various kinds of pollution, waste, destruction of natural objects, etc. And here externalities can be characterized as negative environmental and economic consequences of economic activity, which are not taken into account by the subjects of this activity.

Externalities do not directly affect the economic situation of the polluters themselves. Pollution producers are primarily interested in minimizing their internal costs, and they usually ignore external, external costs as a problem requiring additional costs for their solution. Others have to bear the costs of dealing with externalities. And here a quite reasonable question for the economy arises: why do people, enterprises, etc., subjected to external influences, have to compensate for the negative externalities that have arisen in them, different kinds damage?

Interpreting the concept of externalities in a broad sense, depending on the different types of impacts (in time, between sectors or regions, etc.), the following types of external effects can be distinguished:

temporary (between generations) externalities. This type of externality is closely related to the concept of sustainable development. The current generation must satisfy its needs without diminishing the ability of future generations to satisfy theirs. own needs. Generating global environmental problems, exhausting non-renewable resources, polluting the environment, etc. in the present tense, modern humanity creates huge ecological, economic, social problems for posterity, narrowing their ability to meet their own needs. Here, the fundamental economic moment is the imposition of additional, external costs by the modern generation on the future ones with the prevailing technogenic development. Thus, the exhaustion of oil in the near future, the massive degradation of agricultural land will create huge energy and food problems for the future, will require sharp growth costs compared to modern ones to meet basic needs. There are negative temporal externalities. Positive temporal externalities are also possible. Technological breakthroughs, achievements of the scientific and technological revolution of contemporaries create opportunities to reduce costs in the future. For example, the development of cheap energy production technologies (solar, etc.) will give a significant economic effect in the future;

global (cross-country) externalities. On a global scale, this type of externality has already given rise to a number of specific problems, primarily related to the transfer of transboundary pollution. Emissions of chemical compounds into the atmosphere, river pollution and other environmental impacts create significant environmental and economic problems for other countries. Air pollution in the UK as a result of the transport of pollutants leads to the appearance of "dead" lakes in the north of Sweden, the need to allocate additional costs for environmental protection. And there are more and more examples of such a negative environmental impact in the world. At present, the world community is aware of this problem. Special world conventions and agreements, intercountry agreements on combating transboundary pollution and on the obligations of the parties are signed;

intersectoral externalities. The development of sectors of the economy, especially those exploiting nature, causes significant environmental damage to other sectors. In Russia, the agricultural sector bears huge losses. The extraction of iron ore at the Kursk magnetic anomaly (metallurgical complex) leads to the withdrawal from agricultural circulation of vast areas of the best lands in the world - chernozems. The creation of a cascade of hydroelectric power stations on the Volga (energy complex) led to the flooding of 5-7 million hectares of highly productive agricultural land. The extraction of energy resources in the northern regions of the country is accompanied by the death and degradation of millions of hectares of reindeer pastures. All this forces agriculture to incur additional costs, to develop additional marginal infertile or remote plots of land. There are also positive intersectoral externalities. The development of some sectors can give a significant environmental and economic effect in other sectors. This is achieved with an alternative solution of environmental problems, structural restructuring of the economy.

interregional externalities. This type of externalities is a reduced copy of global externalities, only within one country. For such a huge country" as Russia, with its numerous administrative units, regions, subjects of the Federation, this problem is quite acute. The Volga River can be a classic example here, when the upstream regions create additional costs for water purification from the "lower" regions with their pollution;

local externalities. This type of externality is the most well studied in the literature. Usually, a polluting enterprise is considered in a limited area and the external costs caused by its activities for recipients (other enterprises, the population, natural objects, etc.) are analyzed.

economic technogenicecologicalexternality

5. Accountingsocialcosts

The problem of costs and expenses associated with externalities was first studied by the English economist A. Pitu (1877-1959). He singled out private, individual, costs and social costs, the costs of the whole society. A. Pigou showed that pollution gives rise to external costs. Obviously, for any entrepreneur, the most important goal is to minimize his private costs in order to increase profits. And the simplest way here is to save on environmental costs. The pollution and waste produced in this case is not taken into account by the entrepreneur himself and, accordingly, the costs of their elimination are not taken into account in the cost price. In this case, society, individuals, enterprises, etc. will be forced to spend their additional funds to eliminate the damage that has occurred. Thus, the total social costs and production costs will consist of individual costs and external costs, evaluated in the form of value.

Assessment of external costs is one of the most difficult economic problems, closely related to the assessment of environmental impact. Let us use a simplified economic approach and consider specific example the problem of education and assessment of external costs.

Suppose that there is a chemical plant on the bank of a river with insufficient treatment capacity, which leads to the pollution of the river. Downstream there is a factory that requires clean water (for example, for the production of lemonade), as well as a small village. In the absence of compensation mechanisms and enforcement to eliminate pollution, a chemical plant can produce its products at minimal environmental costs. However, by doing so, additional costs are imposed on the lemonade plant and the population of the village (water treatment for production, drinking, etc.).

The existence of externalities raises the question of the real price of the products of polluting enterprises for society. It is obvious that the underestimation of external costs in the price (inefficiency of the market in their adequate reflection) distorts the price and makes it understated in comparison with the actual social costs.

Accounting for externalities from the standpoint of the whole society, reflection of external costs in the price is quite well developed in economic theory. However, from a practical point of view, the actual consideration of external effects creates great difficulties for theorists and practitioners. A number of problems converge here: market failures, underestimation or even free of charge natural goods and services, the complexity of the economic assessment of environmental damage. These and many other factors make it extremely difficult to accurately account for external costs in specific economic decisions, in the development of various kinds of projects and programs.

On the example of the same chemical plant, consider in the very general view a possible approach for estimating social and external costs. This approach is a simplified reflection of the consideration of the environmental factor in the project analysis, which makes it possible to assess the economic value of the proposed projects and decide on the feasibility of implementing a particular project.

When water is contaminated by a chemical plant, a downstream lemonade plant is forced to build additional treatment facilities for the water it consumes. The people will have to bear additional expenses for the protection of one's own health (installation of filters for drinking water purification, expenses for medicines and doctors in case of illnesses due to poor-quality water, etc.). If we assume that there are fish in the river and as a result of the activity of the plant, its quantity decreases and the quality deteriorates, then the fishermen in the village will be forced to either change their profession or carry additional fare when fishing above the plant along the river. It is also possible to approximately estimate the costs to the population as a result of the loss of the river's recreational value. If earlier it was possible, for example, to swim in the river, now people are forced to bear additional transport costs to find other recreational places or build a pool with expensive cleaning in the village, etc. A number of other external costs can be found.

The process of turning external external costs into internal ones in the economy is called closure, internalization of costs (internal (English) internal, not to be confused with the term "internationalization" - a completely opposite meaning). One of the possible ways to take into account the public interest is to impose a special tax on polluters, equal in size to the external costs. In theory, it was called the Pigouvian tax or the Pigouvian tax. The most important task economic mechanism nature management, direct and market regulators in the field of environmental protection is the internalization of external costs.

Another significant aspect of taking into account public interests in project analysis is the analysis of the overall ratio of the benefits of the polluting enterprise and compensation from its side to the "victims" of pollution. Suppose that our chemical plant is only supposed to be built. And the profit from his work for the owner will be so great that it will allow all victims to be compensated for their additional costs caused by pollution, and leave part of the profit to the owner. Nobody's interests will be infringed. This situation meets the Pareto potential improvement criterion, where society benefits from some activity if at least one person benefits and no one suffers a loss.

Conclusion

Economic development is determined by three factors of economic growth: labor resources, artificially created means of production, natural resources. Economic science paid insufficient attention to environmental problems, which became one of the reasons for the formation of the technogenic type of economic development. This type can be characterized as a nature-intensive (nature-destroying) type of development based on the use of artificial means of production created without taking into account environmental restrictions. In retrospect, within the framework of the technogenic approach, the concepts of the frontal economy and environmental protection can be distinguished.

To prevent global and local environmental crises, it is necessary to change the technogenic type of development to a sustainable type of development. The latter makes it possible to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The concept of sustainable development has been widely recognized both in economics and in international practice. Depending on economic approaches, weak and strong sustainability are distinguished.

To take into account the environmental factor in economic development, externalities are important - external effects (consequences) of economic activity that positively or negatively affect the other side. Externalities can be classified into the following groups: temporary (between generations), global, intersectoral, interregional, local.

Literature

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3. Introduction to social ecology. Uch. allowance. Ch. 1.2. - M., 2007.

4. Vernadsky V.I. Biosphere. - M., 2007.

5. Girusov E.V., Shirokova I.Yu. Ecology and culture. - M., 2009.

6. Kamshilov M.M. Evolution of the biosphere. - M., 2006.

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8. Komarov V.D. Social ecology. -- L., 2000.

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