Prefabricated wall structures. Prefabricated structures in construction

Precast concrete is an important invention of our era. With its application, the pace of construction increased, the volume of work at the construction site decreased, since at prefabricated structures, the elements are manufactured industrially and, after transportation, they are assembled at the construction site. In the construction of individual houses, the creation of a landfill for the production of prefabricated structures is excluded. However, the choice of elements is still quite wide, especially for the structures of floors and lintels for window and door openings.

3.4.1. Precast concrete elements

Precast concrete elements are often damaged during loading and unloading operations, defects are formed, which sometimes call into question the possibility of using these elements in construction. Precast concrete beams are divided into two large groups - with steel reinforcement and with prestressed reinforcement. Precast concrete beams are calculated in advance for all kinds of loads, including those that arise during transportation and storage.

On the upper plane of the beams there are mounting loops for mooring during loading and unloading operations. When storing, these hinges indicate the required position of the beams, since they must be stacked with wooden spacers located near the hinges (fig. 73, "Correct laying of precast concrete elements during storage", 1 - wooden lining; 2 - reinforced concrete elements; 3 - gaskets from boards; 4 - a pile of bricks). If you install the beams differently, then they collapse or crack, becoming unusable. Storing errors are most often made at the construction site, especially in places where there is tightness, and the elements are stored on an unsuitable soil for this. Weakly compacted or loose soil begins to settle during the melting of snow, due to the displacement of the pads elements collapse and become unsuitable for construction (Fig. 74, "Destruction of precast concrete elements due to soil subsidence", 1 - floor slab; 2 - prefabricated elements; 3 - soft soil). Destruction or cracking in beams also occurs as a result of improper storage. Structural elements are not recommended to be stored on their side or upside down. It is wrong to stack the beams in stacks of more than five pieces in height.

Before starting construction, each element is examined to determine its quality. Defective elements can be used, but only after consultation with specialists. Factory defects are detected immediately: shells from fallen gravel more than 5 cm deep; cracks formed in a compressed belt of elements with conventional reinforcement (permissible if their depth is no more than 5-10% of half of the beam height). In a stretched belt, cracks of no more than 0.1 mm in size, formed perpendicular to the axis, are permissible. Inclined cracks caused by shearing stresses or crumbling areas in the compressed chord indicate the inadequacy of the structure for the application. Also unsuitable are elements in which the reinforcement is poorly fixed or there are cracks going through the entire cross-section. Prestressed elements require increased attention, since they have a lower margin of safety and are more accurately calculated. You cannot use such elements in which the following defects can be detected with the naked eye: extended cracks, cracks along the reinforcement or in the lower chord, bare reinforcement more than 50 cm long; corroded reinforcement, significant spalling of the edges and corners of the element.

3.4.2. Installation of precast concrete structures

Precast concrete structures work in accordance with the project only if they are supported on supports in a certain way and are fixed on them motionlessly. A recurring mistake in the construction of an individual house is the inaccuracy of the markings, as a result of which prefabricated reinforced concrete beams are used to cover large spans. In this case, the length of the support part is shorter than necessary, the load is transferred to a smaller area and there is a risk that the beam will break or "collapse" the support.

Often, beams of a different type are built into the ceiling than provided for by the project, this is allowed if their length corresponds to the required one, and the bearing capacity is higher. Although the exterior beams look the same, their bearing capacity can vary by more than half, depending on the number and location of reinforcement. Installation of a random beam with an indefinitely low bearing capacity not according to the design will cause its destruction already in the process of building the floor of the house. In such cases, the overlap may not collapse, but the deflection will be greater than expected. Due to the deflection along the border of contact between the beam and the floor elements, cracks appear on the lower part of the floor and it is impossible to eliminate them by periodic whitewashing - they appear again and again due to movements of the structure under the influence of variable loads.

The gross mistake is laying the beams in the wrong position - on the side or upside down (Fig. 75, "Incorrect laying of prefabricated reinforced concrete bulkhead", 1 - correctly laid reinforced concrete bulkhead; 2 - jumper laid flat; 3 - wall). The bearing capacity of reinforced concrete beams, in contrast to wooden beams, corresponds to the design one only in a certain position; if they are turned over, they will collapse, since they were designed and reinforced only for this position. All changes to the original design require additional calculation, since floor collapses are possible, for example, if you connect short beams by simple welding of the ends of the reinforcement and fill the joint with concrete, the floor will collapse even during construction. This kind of build-up of structures cannot be reliably performed. It is not recommended to work with fittings, in which the load-bearing capacity sharply decreases during welding. Additional concreting does not ensure the proper quality of the joint, since at the point of welding, the concrete loses its strength under the influence of high temperature. Alterations of precast concrete beams at the construction site are unacceptable; they may not be lengthened, shortened, or installed upside-down or on their side.

Precast concrete beams are supported on load-bearing walls or other structures, their ends are fixed with a stiffening belt to prevent displacement. A reinforced concrete stiffening belt is a monolithic concrete beam that runs along the top of the load-bearing walls and provides the horizontal stiffness of the building. Reinforced concrete beams or floor panels are laid before the stiffening belt is manufactured. It should be borne in mind that in areas with a cold climate, the stiffness belt can cause freezing of the walls in the overlap zone. Often they make such a mistake - having reached the top of the wall, to the surface where the stiffening belt begins, beams and floor elements are laid, but they no longer have the opportunity to stretch the reinforcement in the lower part of the stiffening belt under the laid beams (or through them). This error can be prevented. The simplest solution is to install a support run along the wall, which supports the floor until the stiffening belt is concreted (Fig. 76, "Laying precast concrete beams using a support girder", 1 - precast concrete beam; 2 - rack; 3 - run; 4 - formwork; 5 - reinforced concrete stiffening belt; 6 - half brick wall). Often, with the help of a support run, the floor beams are raised and longitudinal reinforcement is carried out under them and the stiffening belt is concreted.

When erecting slabs from prefabricated panels, the formwork is moistened before concreting. At the same time, a lot of water gets into the inner cavities of the panels. If water does not drain from there before concreting, then under the influence of frost in winter, the ceiling will crack, and its bearing capacity will decrease (Fig. 77, "Freezing of water in the internal cavities of the floor slab", 1 - ice formation; 2 - cracks; 3 - reinforced concrete stiffening belt; 4 - half-brick wall; 5 - concrete screed; 6 - floor covering). In addition, in the spring, moisture comes out through the cracks from the floor and destroys the whitewash. The described phenomenon also occurs when using trough-shaped floor elements that accumulate rainwater, which either freezes in winter or constantly moistens structure (fig. 78, "Accumulation of water in trough-shaped floor elements", 1 - accumulated rainwater; 2 - trough-shaped element; 3 - reinforced concrete beam; 4 - slag filling; 5 - floor covering; 6 - wall cladding). Very often, when filling the floor with elements, the required layer of mortar is not applied, which ensures the mobility of the elements, which are displaced in the finished floor and cracks appear on the plaster (Fig. 79, "Laying the elements of filling the floor on the mortar", 1 - mortar; 2 - an element of the type of a hollow insert; 3 - trowel; 4 - prefabricated reinforced concrete beam). Sometimes the wrong technology is used for laying prestressed beams filled with elements in the form of hollow liners. They do not take into account, and often do not know, that the floor can withstand the design load only if the seams between the beams and the floor elements are sealed with concrete. This concrete taken into account when calculating the bearing capacity, but if it is simply laid and left without maintenance, it will "burn out" and the overlap will not reach its design capacity (Fig. 80, "Prestressed beam works in conjunction with concrete embedding", 1 - concrete embedding; 2 - an element of the type of a hollow insert; 3 - prefabricated reinforced concrete beam ) .

3.4.3. Ceramic inlays

Aerated ceramics containing at least 40% vitreous ceramics are made from cellular clay. Ceramic elements are about 4 times larger than traditional bricks. The structure of the elements consists of "stiffeners" 10-12 mm thick. The use of new technology has enhanced the ability of ceramic elements to retain their shape due to almost the same strength as concrete, therefore it became possible to create prefabricated concrete structures with fired clay inserts. The use of ceilings with liners made of cellular ceramics (liner beams) is primarily beneficial in individual construction due to their lightness, ease of installation in low-mechanized construction sites. Errors made in the construction of ceramic floors are similar to those in the construction of reinforced concrete floors.

Accurate reinforcement is essential for embedding aerated ceramic insert beams, especially when working with certain types of concrete, such as B200. Sometimes they forget about the need for moistening, and ceramic elements absorb moisture from the concrete, and the remaining amount of water is not enough for setting. In addition, it is difficult to obtain the 4 mm diameter reinforcement required for the manufacture of clamps where the beams are tied to concrete walls. Installation of honeycomb beams made of cellular ceramics is quite simple, since their mass is small. The truck crane should not be allowed to lift several beams at the same time, which, hitting each other, deteriorate (Fig. 81, "Incorrect feeding of several beams at once", 1 - support wall; 2 - a bunch of beams). They often make the mistake of not having a support in the middle of the span; the beams are concreted in a deflection state (Fig. 82, "Deflection of aerated concrete beams during concreting without supports in the middle of the span", 1 - support; 2 - filling concrete; 3 - thickened concrete layer; 4 - the position of the beam; a - normal; b - with a deflection ) .

CONSTRUCTIONS assembled (mounted) from ready-made elements that do not require additional processing (trimming, fitting, etc.) at the construction site. Elements of prefabricated structures are made of various materials (steel, CONCRETE, reinforced concrete, wood, asbestos cement, aluminum alloys, plastics, etc.) at specialized factories, builds, industry or builds, landfills, delivered to the construction site and mounted using lifting mechanisms ...

ASSEMBLY STRUCTURES- structures assembled (assembled) from individual elements pre-fabricated at factories that do not require processing (trimming, fitting, etc.) at the construction site. Prefabricated construction is the main direction of industrialization of construction, it includes the mechanized production of parts or enlarged blocks of prefabricated structures at special equipped factories, their machine transportation to the assembly site and mechanized installation at the construction site. The use of prefabricated structures significantly reduces the time, reduces the labor intensity and cost of construction, while improving the quality of work.

Prefabricated structures are advisable only if the prefabricated elements have a high repeatability. The advantages of prefabricated construction are fully manifested if the factories (landfills) of prefabricated structures are equipped with high-performance equipment with advanced technology for the manufacture of elements, and construction sites - with the necessary means of mechanization. The efficiency of prefabricated structures increases on condition of ensuring the reliability of connection of elements, their waterproofing, etc., as well as unification of space-planning and structural solutions of buildings, loads, typification of structural schemes, elements, etc.

For prefabricated factories, a certain specialization is required. They should organize a mass production of standard, selected for the best, in comparison with other solutions, technical and economic indicators, elements of a small number of standard sizes, and in the total volume of production large-sized prefabricated products should prevail. These conditions for the efficiency of precast construction are of particular importance for the production of precast concrete products. Until recently, prefabricated structures were made mainly of steel and wood, and prefabricated structures made of these materials differed fundamentally little from conventional (non-prefabricated). The rapid growth in the production of prefabricated reinforced concrete structures and their introduction into construction practice required the solution of a large complex of complex issues.

Creation of equipment for factories and landfills, development of structures for the main load-bearing elements of buildings and structures, solving the problem of joints, working out the technology of manufacturing products, assembling structures, etc., since construction in prefabricated reinforced concrete is fundamentally different from the construction of monolithic reinforced concrete structures. The transition to prefabricated reinforced concrete structures sharply increased the industrialization of construction.

Steel prefabricated structures are widely used in the construction of bridges, masts, towers, the main structures of ferrous metallurgy enterprises, overpasses, tanks, gas tanks, pipelines, in large-span coatings of industrial and public buildings, in the frames of buildings with heavy loads, and others (see Steel structures). The traditional areas of distribution of prefabricated timber structures (prefabricated housing, wooden structures of residential, public and industrial buildings, engineering structures of small spans designed to absorb loads of low intensity, temporary buildings, etc.) are significantly expanding with the advent of glued structures (see. ). Prefabricated structures made of new building materials (based on polymers, asbestos cement, glass, etc.) are promising.

Prefabricated structures with the use of plastics have a number of advantages, such as low weight, high strength and resistance to corrosion, the presence of electrical insulating and, in some plastics, heat-insulating properties, ease of processing and molding, etc. The use of such prefabricated structures is especially advisable for increased requirements to weight indicators, such as transportability, corrosion resistance of structures, etc. (structures on soft soils, in undeveloped and hard-to-reach areas, in workshops with a chemically aggressive environment, as an interior decoration of buildings, etc.).

Compared to steel structures, prefabricated structures made of aluminum alloys have less weight, and therefore their use is especially beneficial in structures with a large span, the main load of which is their own weight, in earthquake-resistant construction, as well as in structures intended for delivery to underdeveloped areas. The valuable building properties of aluminum alloys are greatly expanding the applications of metal prefabricated structures, and more and more prefabricated structures based on glass products are used. In addition to wall panels made of glass, double-glazed windows, glass blocks, high-strength slag glass (in panels of external walls of buildings, partitions, slabs) and stemalite (in three-layer panels, in which the outer layer is stemalite, the inner layer is asbestos cement, and the thermal insulation is foam glass) should become widespread.

The advent of lightweight structural materials has opened up ample opportunities for a significant increase in the output of such a variety of prefabricated structures as collapsible structures, the effectiveness of which is determined by their low weight, ease of installation and dismantling, high transportability of elements with a relatively low cost. Collapsible structures are applicable primarily for temporary structures, in agricultural construction, as well as in underdeveloped and hard-to-reach areas.

In blind structures, in addition to panel and frame-panel collapsible structures, in some cases, film-frame and pneumatic structures are effective. Film-frame collapsible structures are convenient for light temporary shelters. Pneumatic collapsible structures (air-support and pneumo-frame) are made of rubberized fabrics or synthetic films; they can cover significant spans, and are also suitable for structures for various purposes (temporary garages, warehouses, etc.).

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Prefabricated structures

in construction, structures assembled (mounted) from ready-made elements that do not require additional processing (trimming, fitting, etc.) at the construction site. The elements of sulfuric acid are made of various materials (steel, concrete, reinforced concrete, wood, asbestos cement, aluminum alloys, plastics, etc.) at specialized factories in the construction industry or at construction sites. In the USSR, the development of industrial building materials production and the expansion of the areas of their application are the main direction of the industrialization of construction. . The use of carbon steel allows the most labor-intensive work to be performed at industrial enterprises equipped with high-performance equipment for the manufacture of prefabricated elements. Installation of S. to. At the construction site, as well as loading and unloading operations during their transportation are carried out by assembly mechanisms (cranes, loaders) with minimal manual labor. These conditions for the use of industrial building systems ensure a significant reduction in the labor intensity and cost of construction, a reduction in the time required for the construction of buildings and structures, and an improvement in the quality of work.

S. to. Are expedient only with a high repeatability of prefabricated elements and a minimum number of their standard sizes. In accordance with this, prefabricated construction provides for the use of mainly unified (standard) products with a predominance of large-sized elements in the total volume of production.

Structures assembled from prefabricated elements, with appropriate connections (see Connections), can be collapsible, which is very effective in the construction of various temporary structures, especially in hard-to-reach areas. In the USSR, prefabricated reinforced concrete structures and products are the most widespread type of S. to. See also Steel structures, Timber structures, Prefabricated construction.

Lit .: Dykhovichny Yu.A., Design and calculation of residential and public buildings of increased number of storeys. Experience of Moscow construction, M., 1970; Designer handbook. Typical reinforced concrete structures of buildings and structures for industrial construction, M., 1974.

A.P. Vasiliev.

Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M .: Soviet encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .

See what "Prefabricated structures" is in other dictionaries:

Building structures (reinforced concrete, metal, wood, etc.) mounted on the construction site during the construction of buildings and structures from prefabricated enlarged elements ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

Building structures (reinforced concrete, metal, wood, etc.), mounted on a construction site during the construction of buildings and structures from prefabricated enlarged elements. * * * ASSEMBLY STRUCTURES ASSEMBLY STRUCTURES, ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

In construction, the structures of buildings and structures assembled (assembled) from pre-fabricated on the backs and polygons of the elements. S. to. Are carried out from the railway. b., concrete, metal, wood, etc. C. to. are expedient only with a large ... ... Big Encyclopedic Polytechnic Dictionary

Prefabricated structures- ready-made elements of the building structure, roofs, floors, walls, etc. (Architecture: illustrated guide, 2005) ... Architectural vocabulary

Prefabricated structures- - concrete or concrete structures made in the form of separate elements and mounted on the construction site of a building or structure. [Terminological dictionary for concrete and reinforced concrete. FSUE "Research Center" Construction "NIIZhB and M. A. A. ... ...

Large-block structures- Large-block structures - prefabricated structures of large-sized concrete blocks (solid, hollow, with slot-like or round voids), from which foundations are mounted. external and internal walls. [Terminological dictionary… … Encyclopedia of terms, definitions and explanations of building materials

Prefabricated structures with detachable connections, allowing for the dismantling of structures and their repeated repeated installation in a new place (Bulgarian; Български), swelling unbroken structures (Czech; Čeština) demontabilní ... ... Construction vocabulary

collapsible structures- Prefabricated structures with detachable connections, allowing for the dismantling of structures and their repeated repeated installation in a new place [Terminological dictionary for construction in 12 languages (VNIIIS Gosstroy USSR)] Construction topics ... Technical translator's guide

Concrete structures- Heading terms: Concrete structures Vut Gas silicate products Reinforced concrete diagnostics Heat-resistant concrete structures ... Encyclopedia of terms, definitions and explanations of building materials

Prefabricated reinforced concrete structures- Prefabricated reinforced concrete structures - prefabricated building structures that are mounted directly on the construction site. [Dictionary of architectural and construction terms] Prefabricated reinforced concrete structures - ... ... Encyclopedia of terms, definitions and explanations of building materials

Books

Building construction. Reinforced concrete structures. Textbook, T.N. Tsai. The textbook covers the basics of the theory of calculation and design of reinforced concrete structures. Prefabricated, monolithic, precast-monolithic and prefabricated reinforced concrete ...

The use of trench walls in the ground allows, by changing the location of individual grips, to erect various structures of a straight, curved, broken or closed outline.

Rice. 1 Principal constructive solutions for the joints of a monolithic wall in the ground

Buried walls used as retaining walls can be free-standing (cantilever type), as well as supported by spacers or ground anchors. As a rule, the height of the cantilever part of the wall should not exceed 6-8 m.

For subway facilities, transport tunnels and other buried structures, when walls in the ground are used as load-bearing ones, it is advisable to use elements of prefabricated or monolithic permanent vaults, beam ceilings with the development of soil in the excavation in a semi-closed way at the construction stage to ensure the stability of the walls, instead of temporary anchors or firing.

Monolithic reinforced concrete walls

Trench walls in the ground are provided, as a rule, with vertical division into separate sections, concreted in trench grabs sequentially or through one. Section volume, as a rule, is not more than 60 ... 80 m3.

To ensure the joint operation of the sections, appropriate design solutions for their joints and monolithic piping along the top of the wall with continuous horizontal reinforcement should be provided. The design and technology of the section joints are established by the project, depending on the purpose and design features of the walls (Fig. 1). Non-working (structural) joints must resist the mutual displacement of the sections in the transverse direction and are made without bypassing and connecting the reinforcement of adjacent grips.

The design of the working joint should ensure the perception of tensile forces and the joint operation of the wall sections, for which it is necessary to provide for the connection of the working reinforcement of adjacent sections.

The design and technology of the arrangement of the joints of individual sections must comply with the requirements for water tightness of the walls as a whole. To ensure the watertightness of the joints, the following standard solutions are possible:

Rice. Fig. 2 3

Rice. 2. The design of reinforcing cages: 1 - working reinforcement; 2 - guides; 3 - places of installation of concrete pipes

Rice. 3. Reinforcing frames of walls in the ground: 1 - non-removable restraints; 2 - core frame; 3 - sheet of metal insulation

In the concrete of wall structures in the ground, non-concreted places, inclusions of soil and clay mortar, a decrease in the thickness of the protective layer and exposure of reinforcement, cold seams, and cracks, with the exception of surface shrinkage, are not allowed.

Reinforcement of monolithic walls is performed with space frames

Rice. 4. Construction of panels for precast walls in the ground : a) flat wall panel; b) hollow-core wall panel; c) ribbed wall panels and blocks of them.

Reinforcement outlets; 2 - mounting loops; 3 - embedded parts.

buried underground wall Chernobyl

Rice. 5. Types of sections of bearing elements (racks) for precast walls in soil: a) T-section; b) rectangular (box) section, c) I-section

Rice. 6. Examples of precast wall structures : 1 - carrier panel; 2 - bearing rack; 3 - intermediate panel; 4 - hardening grouting solution

Precast walls

Walls in the ground, both load-bearing and enclosing, can be constructed from prefabricated prefabricated reinforced concrete elements, which are flat, hollow-core or ribbed panels (Fig. 4), as well as T-bars, I-beams, and rectangular solid sections (Fig. 5). Other constructions of prefabricated walls are possible, differing in the type of panels or posts, in the way they are connected and fixed in the trench.

Rice. 7. Precast-monolithic structure of the wall in the ground: 1 - reinforced concrete panel; 2 - grouting solution; 3 - a monolithic part made of ductile concrete; 4 - waterproofing

Precast monolithic walls

The structure of precast-monolithic reinforced concrete walls consists of load-bearing wall elements installed in a trench at certain intervals, and a monolithic filling between them of concrete or cement-sand mortar, reinforced, if necessary, with lightweight frames (Fig. 7).

With a deep location of the water-resistant soil layer, it is allowed to construct walls of a mixed structure, consisting in the upper part of load-bearing prefabricated elements forming the walls of an underground structure, and in the lower part (up to the location of the water-resistant soil layer) monolithic (Fig. 8). Prefabricated elements must be buried in the concrete, monolithic part of the structure by at least 0.5 ... 1 m. not higher than B15 with additives of bentonite clays.

Unified, prefabricated designs.

Prefabricated structures in construction, structures assembled (assembled) from ready-made elements that do not require additional processing (trimming, fitting, etc.) at the construction site. Elements of prefabricated structures are made of various materials (steel, concrete, reinforced concrete, wood, asbestos cement, aluminum alloys, plastics, etc.) at specialized factories in the construction industry or construction sites. The development of the production of prefabricated structures and the expansion of their areas of application are the main focus industrialization construction. The use of prefabricated structures allows the most time-consuming work to be performed at industrial enterprises equipped with high-performance equipment for the manufacture of prefabricated elements. Assembly of prefabricated structures at the construction site, as well as loading and unloading operations during their transportation, are carried out by assembly mechanisms (cranes, loaders) with minimal manual labor. These conditions for the use of prefabricated structures provide a significant reduction in the labor intensity and cost of construction, a reduction in the construction time of buildings and structures and an increase in the quality of work.

Prefabricated structures are advisable only with a high repeatability of prefabricated elements and a minimum number of their standard sizes. Accordingly, in prefabricated construction, it is envisaged to use mainly unified (typical) products with a predominance in the total volume of products to Rune-sized x elements.

TEST QUESTIONS:

Which of the following structures are typical:

1) solid foundations +

2) windows with arched lintels

3) floor slabs with round voids +

4) strip block foundations +

5) wooden staircases

6) precast concrete lintels +

Snapping load-bearing and self-supporting walls in civil buildings

Snap is the distance from the edges of the element to the coordination axes of the building (they are also modular axes, since they are multiples of the module M = 100mm, or alignment axes)

Anchoring an internal load-bearing wall - floor elements are supported from 2 sides, therefore the coordination axis coincides with the element's symmetry axis - AXIAL SNAP.

Longitudinal self-supporting the walls do not support anything - the coordination axis runs along the inner edge - ZERO SNAP (snap "0")

SUPPORTING AREA: must be the same on both sides of the element. (Usually the minimum is 120 slabs, 180 beams), therefore, the thickness of the internal load-bearing wall on which the slabs rest on 2 sides is not less than 240 (250 - in 1 brick)

A rule of binding outdoor BRICKS load-bearing walls: if b = thickness of the inner load-bearing wall, then from the inner edge of the outer load-bearing wall to the coordination axis (i.e. SNAP) = b / 2

FOR LARGE-PANEL: the difference is only in the outer walls: binding of the outer walls = M = 100 mm (since a room-sized ceiling can be supported on 3 and 4 sides, less load, less support area. The internal load-bearing wall, depending on the concrete 140-220mm thick.

COLUMN LINKING IN CIVIL BUILDINGS - AXIAL always for medium columns. For the outermost columns, it depends on the scheme of cutting the frame into individual elements and taking into account the loads on the floor and cacas. Usually: if the columns are on several floors - then AXIAL, if cutting by floors, the girder rests on the column from above, then ZERO ON THE OUTER EDGE OF THE COLUMN, along the inner edge of the wall. (This scheme is more durable, in large buildings)

TEST QUESTIONS:

What does the expression "zero reference" of the curtain wall mean:

1) the outer face of the wall and the coordination axis coincide

2) The symmetry axis and the coordination axis coincide

3) The inner face of the wall and the coordination axis coincide +

4) The thickness of the insulating layer is 0.

What is the name of the internal structural wall snapping?

1) zero

2) symmetrical

3) axial +

4) constructive

5) typical