Ancient Greece social and economic relations. Main features of the economic development of Ancient Greece

Topic: Features of the economic development of Ancient Greece

Introduction 3

1. Stages of economic development and the role of the state in the economy of Ancient Greece 4

1.1. Economic development of Ancient Greece in the III-II millennium BC. e 4

1.2. Ancient Greece in the XI-VI centuries. BC e 4

1.3. Greek economy of the classical period (V-IV centuries BC) 5

1.4. Ancient Greece of the Hellenistic era (IV-I centuries BC) 7

2. Organization of production in Ancient Greece 8

3. Monetary relations in Ancient Greece 9

Conclusion 10

References 12

Introduction

At the turn of the 3rd-2nd millennium BC. An ancient Greek republic arose in the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula. Greece never sought dominance, its inhabitants fought few battles, and few generals achieved great fame. For the last two millennia, Greece was under the rule of foreign conquerors, and only a century and a half ago Greece regained independence and became an independent state.

Two and a half millennia ago, the culture of Greece reached a great flourishing, in contrast to other later states that could not achieve such a flourishing. Convenient geographical location contributed to early economic development. The slave system of Ancient Greece differed significantly from ancient Eastern slavery by its high level of development of productive forces.

This country played a special role on the political and economic map of that time. Its internal economic system and external economic relations deserve detailed study and may be interesting from the point of view of modern economics.

Thus, the topic of the test “Features of the economic development of Ancient Greece” is relevant and interesting to study.

Stages of economic development and the role of the state in the economy of Ancient Greece.

1.1. Economic development of the Greek lands in III- IIthousand BC

Throughout the 3rd millennium BC. metallurgy and ceramic production achieved success. In agriculture, the leading industry was agriculture, in which the main place is occupied by the “Mediterranean triad”: cereals, grapes, olives. Marine fishing, trade, and crafts actively developed on the Greek islands.

At the heart of the socio-economic structure of states were palaces - huge complexes that included residential and religious premises, many storerooms, workshops, etc. All categories of the population were dependent on the palace. The king was at the head of the state. He performed political and religious functions, and the palace administration was in charge of management. Also, all groups of the population paid taxes on various types of products. Foreign trade was controlled by the kings, special attention was paid to security and the fight against pirates.

1.2. Ancient Greece in XI- VIcenturies BC.

This period covers two stages in the history of Ancient Greece: the dark ages (XI-IX centuries BC) and the archaic period (VIII-VI centuries BC).

In the XI-IX centuries. BC. A natural type of economy appeared in the Greek economy; crafts were not separated from agriculture. The tools of labor were improved, a plow with a metal coulter appeared. Livestock was considered one of the main forms of wealth, so livestock farming played an important role in agriculture. Weaving, metallurgy, and ceramics were developed in the craft. However, production was focused only on meeting the needs of people, and therefore trade developed very slowly.

In the VIII-VI centuries. BC. economics of ancient greece has changed. Crafts separated from agriculture, and agriculture remained the leading sector of the economy. Also during this period, Greek colonization occurred, the cause of which was underdeveloped agricultural production and the inability to provide the population with food. The main function of the colonies was to provide the metropolises with bread. During the period of colonization, agriculture and crafts began to be market-oriented. Many Greek city policies are becoming craft centers.

Greek trade developed very actively during the period of colonization. Constant connections between metropolises are being established. Maritime trade became the most important sector of the economy in developed Greek cities.

The main distinctive feature of the Greek polis was the participation of all members of the civil community in government. Many Greek cities had laws. In most areas of Greece, the development of commodity production and land shortages led to the growth of large landownership.

1.3. Greek economy of the classical period (V- IVcenturies BC.)

"V century" BC e. - the time of the highest rise of Greek civilization." . During this period, the polis flourished - a city-state, a community of citizens, with its own governing bodies, laws, army, court, and classical slavery was formed. After the Greco-Persian Wars, Athens became the leading state of the Greek world. During the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC), commodity-money relations began to develop.

Agriculture remained the main sector of the Greek economy and employed the majority of the population. Product sales are increasing. However, subsistence farming was not completely replaced. Polis remain independent from the outside world and remain independent in politics and economics. During the period of economic recovery, production expands and division of labor occurs. Legal proceedings, navigation, mining and ceramics production are actively developing.

Foreign maritime trade is acquiring the greatest importance. The Greeks exported agricultural and handicraft products, mainly metal products, ceramics, wine and olive oil. And food products, various types of raw materials and slaves were imported to Greece.

However, internal trade was much less developed in the Greek city-states. At the city market, peasants traded their agricultural products and received handicraft products in exchange.

In most Greek policies, the state economy was not organized, so there was no constant income. There was also no direct taxation of citizens. Voluntary donations were made to compensate for the lack of stable income.

An important issue in economic policy was the provision of bread to Greek city states. In many policies, commissions were elected from wealthy citizens to purchase and distribute grain among citizens. In domestic markets, officials appeared to maintain order; they controlled the quality of products, the correctness of weights and measures, and collected duties.

Currently IV century. BC e. is considered as a period of crisis of the classical Greek polis.

Manifestations of this crisis are changes in land relations. The widespread use of land purchase and sale transactions is seen as one of the sources of income, and not as the basis of the life of citizens. The rental of private properties is spreading, the exclusive right of citizens to own land is being violated more often, and thus the non-civilian population is beginning to develop the sphere of agriculture.

Many citizens begin to engage in other types of activities, such as: maritime trade, mining, interest-bearing loans and much more. Money becomes the main value. They determine the position of people in society.IV- 1.4. Ancient Greece of the Hellenistic era (centuries BC.)

In 338 BC. Greece lost its independence and subordination to Philip of Macedon. One of the reasons is the loss of polis unity. His son Alexander created in the 30-20s of the 4th century. BC. a major world power. From this time on, the policies were replaced by Hellenistic monarchies.

After the death of Alexander, the power split into several states: the Greco-Macedonian kingdom, the Seleucid state, Egypt, the Pergamon and Pontic kingdoms in Asia Minor.

The exchange of experience between the eastern peoples and the ancient Greeks played an important role in economic development. This contributed to the development of technology and the emergence of new crops. During this period, science and technology developed significantly: the famous scientist Archimedes discovered the hydraulic law, the law of the lever, invented the bolt, the screw water-scooping machine and much more.

Large cities became trade and craft centers, they were administrative units. They retained self-government bodies.

Classical slavery began to spread across states. The number of slaves in agriculture increased. The land was also cultivated by members of communities who were dependent on the state.

An important change occurs in the organization of production, and classical slavery begins to form. This process was associated with the development of commodity production. A sharp increase in the number of slaves was ensured by wars, slave trade, and piracy. All these are the main sources of slavery. Slaves are deprived of all rights, they are used in all areas of production and they become the main labor force. Slave labor was actively used in craft workshops called ergasteria. The use of slave labor in mining was very large-scale.

Slave labor played a small role in Greek agriculture. This was due to the fact that it was not profitable to use low-productive slave labor when growing crops. Greek peasants worked the land with their entire families. The labor of 1-7 slaves was used as additional force, or hired labor was used, especially during seasonal work.

Slaves were also actively used as domestic servants. They could be rented out or released on rent. In such cases, the owner did not interfere in his life. A slave could purchase his own workshop or hire a job. There were also state slaves who could fill positions in the city administration or perform police service.

Monetary relations in Ancient Greece.

In the II-I millennium BC. e. there was no money as such. This was due to the predominance of subsistence farming and the weak development of trade. The role of money was played by cattle. Coinage began at the turn of the 7th-6th centuries. BC e.

By the 6th century BC e. In Greece, there were two main monetary systems - Aegina and Euboean. The basis of each system was talent - a weight unit, which in Euboea was 26.2 kg, and in Aegina - 37 kg. One talent was minted into 6 thousand drachmas - silver coins. The Aeginian standard was common in most of the territory of Greece and the islands of the Aegean Sea, the Euboean standard was widespread on the island of Euboea, in many western Greek colonies, as well as in the two largest policies - Corinth and Athens.

In the 5th century BC e. The minting of bronze small change coins begins. All independent Greek city policies enjoyed the right to mint their own coins. As a result, a new profession of money changer appeared in trade. Money changers performed some of the functions of banks: issuing money loans, storing money and transferring various amounts from one client's account to another. They also performed the functions of notary offices: they stored documents, concluded transactions and drew up bills of sale.

Conclusion

The Dark Ages in Ancient Greece were characterized by the dominance of subsistence farming. Society did not know money; livestock was a measure of wealth. Slavery is not yet widespread. Thus, by the end of this period, the top of society was not very distinguished, there were no external connections, and Greece was an association of peasant farmers.

During the archaic period, Greece overtook all neighboring countries in its development. Trade became the leading industry. Money appeared. Usury arose, and with it debt slavery.

In the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. The Great Greek colonization occurred, the reasons for which were: lack of land, political struggle, the search for markets for products, the need for metal and sources of raw materials, as well as the desire of the Greeks to put all sea routes under their control. Property policies have been formed.

In the classical period, the main feature of economic development was the dominance of policies and the spread of slavery of the classical type in trade and craft policies. Classic slavery was aimed at creating surplus value. During this period, slave labor penetrated into all spheres of life and production.

In the 5th century BC e. new phenomena were the increase in the marketability of agriculture and regional specialization.

In the IV-I centuries. BC. Greece is fragmented into several Hellenistic states. The exchange of experiences between the Greeks and the Eastern peoples played an important role in economic development. Trade turnover has increased.

This period is also characterized by significant development of science and technology. Classical and debt slavery is spreading.

From all that has been said, it should be concluded that a new type of economy has emerged in Greece. It required significant investments, a high level of economic organization, the use of slave labor, and created very favorable conditions for the very existence of Greek society, as well as the development of Greek culture.

Studying the features of the economy of Ancient Greece in this work allows us to see what role economics plays in the development of such a powerful civilization.

List of used literature

1. History of the world economy: Textbook / Ed. G.B. Polyak, A.N. Markova. - M.: Unity, 2000. - 386 p.

2. Zoloeva L. A., Poryaz A. G. World culture: Ancient Greece. Ancient Rome. - M.: Olma-press, 2001. - 324 p.

3. Economic theory: Textbook / Ed. A.I. Dobrynina, L.S. Tarasevich. - St. Petersburg: Publishing house St. Petersburg State University of Economics and Economics, 2007. - 454 p.

4. Fisher S. Economics. - M.: Delo, 1998. - 278 p.

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1. Economic development of Greek lands in the III-II millennium BC. e.

Socio-economic system

2. Economic development in the XI-VI centuries. BC e.

Sectoral structure of the economy

Land ownership. Organization of production

Money relations

3. Greek economy of the classical period (V-IV centuries BC)

Sectoral structure of the economy

Organization of production

Money relations

The role of the state in economic life

New phenomena in the Greek economy of the 4th century. BC.

4. Economic development in the Hellenistic era (late IV-I centuries BC)

Introduction:

About five thousand years ago, in the south of the Balkan Peninsula and its surrounding islands in the eastern Mediterranean, a culture was born that was destined to play the greatest role in human history - the culture of the ancient Greeks, or Hellenes. Greece never aspired to world domination, its inhabitants took part in only a few historical battles, and few of the Greek commanders managed to gain great glory. For more than the last two millennia, this people was under the rule of foreign conquerors, and only a century and a half ago Greece regained independence and appeared on the map as an independent state.

It would seem that Greece in the past was no different from its neighbors - neither in its special political role, nor in any exceptional natural conditions. However, it was here that two and a half millennia ago culture reached such a flourishing that for many centuries seemed unattainable.

Economic development of the Greek lands inIII- IIthousand BC e.

III-II millennium BC e. in Greece it is usually called the Bronze Age. During this period, bronze tools spread both on the islands of the Aegean Sea and on the mainland, helping to accelerate economic development and the creation of the first states. Throughout the 3rd millennium BC. e. the most developed were the Cyclades islands, located in the southern Aegean Sea. From the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e. The island of Crete, located at the intersection of ancient sea routes, becomes the most influential among others. The Cretan (or Minoan) civilization reached its peak around the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e.

Development of mainland Greece in the 3rd millennium BC. e. did not proceed at such a fast pace, however, in some coastal areas, already in the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. e. Quite developed cultures emerge.

Sectoral structure of the economy

Throughout the 3rd millennium BC. e. Metallurgy and ceramic production are achieving significant success, where from about the 23rd century. BC e. The potter's wheel began to be used. In agriculture, the leading position is occupied by the so-called Mediterranean triad: cereals (especially barley), grapes, olives.

Most active in the 3rd and first half of the 2nd millennium BC. e. The Greek islands developed, where maritime trades, trade, and crafts, including artistic ones, were of particular importance. Cycladic sailors maintained contacts with lands located in the basins of the Aegean and Adriatic seas, reaching the shores of Spain and the Danube.

The basis of the economy of Crete and the Achaean states was agriculture, the leading branch of which was farming, however, livestock breeding (especially sheep breeding) also played an important role. Among the crafts, metallurgy and ceramic production were of primary importance. Crete and the Achaean states maintained foreign trade relations with Egypt, Cyprus, and the Eastern Mediterranean; From these areas, mainly raw materials and some luxury goods were imported; mainly ceramics and metal products, including weapons, were exported. In addition, the Achaeans developed trade with the peoples inhabiting the north of the Balkan Peninsula, with Italy, Sicily, and also with the western coast of Asia Minor.

Socio-economic system

The basis of the socio-economic structure of Crete and the Achaean states were palaces - huge complexes that included residential and religious premises, many storerooms and workshops. It is difficult to judge land relations in Crete due to insufficient sources, however, most likely, the lands were in communal and state ownership. In addition, it can be assumed that temple and private farms also existed on state land. In the Achaean states, the palaces controlled all the land, which was divided into two main categories: public land (partly owned by territorial communities, partly allocated for performing any work) and land owned by individuals. Both categories of land were quite actively leased, including to slaves, but a slave could not become the owner of the land. Slaves, as in Crete, were relatively few; the majority belonged to the palace, and, in addition, to private individuals and temples. Free community members were mainly involved in production.

All categories of the free population (nobility, community members, etc.) were to one degree or another dependent on the palace. The king was at the head of the state, but real control was in the hands of the palace administration.

Almost all groups of the population and, above all, territorial communities were subject to taxes on various types of products. Some social groups were exempt from paying taxes, mainly those who played a special role in the existence of the state (blacksmiths, oarsmen, warriors).

Foreign economic activity was probably controlled by the kings; in Crete, special attention was paid to the security of trade and the fight against pirates.

Conclusion:

Thus, the basis of economic life during this period was the palace economy. The lands were palace, private and communal. The agricultural population was subject to natural and labor duties in favor of the palaces.

The palace thus performed universal functions. It was both an administrative and religious center, the main granary, workshop and trading post. In more developed societies, cities played this role.

Economy of Ancient Greece

At the turn of the 3rd-2nd millennium BC. e. An ancient Greek republic arose in the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula. Early economic growth was facilitated by a convenient geographical location (trade routes) and the improvement of productive forces (the production of copper and then bronze was mastered). The basis of agriculture was farming of a new multicultural type - the so-called “Mediterranean triad”, focused on the simultaneous cultivation of three crops - cereals, mainly barley, grapes and olives. A significant shift occurred around 2200 BC. e. The potter's wheel became known and exchange developed. The proximity of ancient eastern civilizations had an effect.

The following periods of development of Ancient Greece can be distinguished: Cretan-Mecenaean (XXX-XII centuries BC), Homeric (XI-IX centuries BC), Archaic (VIII-VI centuries BC). ), classical (V-IV centuries BC) and Hellenistic (late IV-I centuries BC). The basis of economic life in Cretan-Mekenian period there was a palace economy. Palaces arose at the turn of the 3rd-2nd millennium BC. e., simultaneously in different areas of the island of Crete. The lands were palace, private and communal. The agricultural population was subject to natural and labor duties in favor of the palaces.

The palace thus performed truly universal functions. It was both an administrative and religious center, the main granary, workshop and trading post. In more developed societies, cities played this role.

The state on the island of Crete reached its greatest prosperity in the 16th-15th centuries. BC e. Magnificent palaces were built, roads were laid throughout the island, and a unified system of measures existed. The high productivity of agricultural labor and the presence of excess product led to the differentiation of society and the enrichment of the nobility. In the middle of the 15th century. BC e. civilization on the island of Crete disappeared as a result of a powerful earthquake, and leadership passed to the Achaea. The greatest prosperity came in the XV-XIII centuries. BC e. The Mekens played the leading role. Their economic development was characterized by a further rise in agriculture and crafts.

Land was divided into state and communal. The nobility could lease land in small plots; the state gave the land on conditional holding rights. The lands were also in the hands of individual holders - telestas.

At the end of the 7th century. BC e. the Cretan-Mekenian palace civilization left the historical arena.

Farm Homeric period was quite backward (thrown back to the stage of the primitive communal system). Subsistence farming dominated, livestock was considered a measure of wealth, and society did not know money.

However, important changes occurred during that period. Firstly, in the X-IX centuries. BC e. Iron was widely introduced into the Greek economy. Secondly, the autonomous economy of the small patriarchal family came to the fore. Land plots were firmly assigned to individual families.

The wealth stratification is obvious, however, even the highest strata of the population lived in simplicity; even the palace elite lacked comfort. Slavery was not widespread. Aristocratic farms used the labor of temporarily hired day laborers - fetov.

The settlement of the polis became the political and economic center. The main population of the city is not traders and artisans, but cattle breeders and farmers.

Thus, by the end of this period, Greece was a world of small poleis-communities, associations of peasant farmers, with a lack of external relations, the top of society was not very distinguished.

IN archaic period Greece has surpassed all neighboring countries in its development. Agriculture intensified: peasants switched to growing more profitable crops - grapes and olives. The main units of agricultural production were small peasant farms and larger estates of the family nobility. The lands were leased, and the tenants took ½ of the harvest as payment.

Crafts concentrated in cities. Main industries: metallurgy, metalworking, shipbuilding. Trade became the leading industry. Money appeared. Usury arose, and with it debt slavery.

In the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. The Great Greek Colonization took place. The reasons for colonization are the following: lack of land, due to an increase in population and its concentration in the hands of the nobility, the need for new sources of raw materials, the search for markets for their products, the need for metal (there was very little of it left in Greece itself), the desire of the Greeks to put under control all maritime trade ways, political struggle.

There are three main directions of colonization: the first is western (the most powerful), the second is northeastern, the third is southern and southeastern (the weakest, as it was met with stubborn resistance from local settlers). Colonization contributed to the development of trade and crafts.

In the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. The formation of ancient city policies was underway. The policies were based on the ancient form of ownership. The polis had the right of supreme ownership of land. The main economic principle of the policy was the idea of self-sufficiency.

There are two main types of policies:

Agrarian - absolute predominance of agriculture, poor development of crafts,

trade, a large proportion of dependent workers, as a rule, with an oligarchic structure;

Trade and craft - with a large share of trade and crafts, commodity

monetary relations, the introduction of slavery into the means of production, and a democratic system.

In Sparta, the most fertile lands were divided into 9,000 plots and distributed for temporary possession to the most full-fledged citizens. They could not be given, split up, bequeathed, etc., after the death of the owner they were returned to the state. There was a desire for complete equality, contempt for luxury, a ban on crafts, trade, and the use of gold and silver. The enslaved population, the helots, were actively exploited.

Athens was economically more developed. The Laws of Draco (621 BC) formalized the right to private property. In 594 BC. e. Through the reforms of Solon, all debts made on the mortgage of land were forgiven, taking into slavery for debts was prohibited, the export of olive oil abroad for the purpose of profit was allowed, and grain was banned. Crafts were encouraged. The legislation of Klifen (509 BC) completed the elimination of the clan layer - everyone became equal, regardless of various property contrasts.

IN classical period The main feature of economic development was the dominance of policies and the spread of slavery of the classical type in trade and craft policies. Classic slavery was aimed at creating surplus value.

Sources of slavery:

Sale of prisoners;

Debt slavery for stateless persons;

Internal reproduction of slaves;

Piracy;

Self-selling.

During this period, slave labor penetrated into all spheres of life and production. 30-35% of the total population were slaves. They brought high income. Slaves were released on quitrent, rented out, but after accumulating a certain amount of money, the slave could be released.

New phenomena in the 5th century. BC e. steel increased marketability of agriculture, regional specialization. Olives, oil and wine were very profitable exports.

For convenience in carrying out trade operations, merchants, especially those associated with overseas trade, created associations - fias. The goals of creating fias were as follows: mutual revenue, insurance, etc.

IV century BC e. - time of crisis of the classical policy. It took place under conditions of economic recovery caused by the restoration of the economy after the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC), in which Athens was defeated. The principles of the polis prevented a significant part of the rich inhabitants of Athens - the metics - from engaging in crafts and trade. Without citizenship rights, they had no right to receive land as collateral. At the same time, not land, but money became a prestigious form of wealth: in the 4th century. BC e. The number of land purchase and sale transactions has increased sharply. The result was the concentration of land ownership in one hand. The principle of polis life was undermined - the unity of the concept of citizen and land owner: one could be a citizen and not have land and vice versa.

The ancient form of property was increasingly replaced by private property, and polis morality gave way to individualism. The number of slaves grew, and Greek slaves began to be found. Increasingly, even in agriculture, the labor of freedmen began. Social differentiation increased, which undermined the foundations of the polis. Autarky and autonomy prevented the expansion of economic ties.

However, the polis did not disappear from the historical arena, and at the Hellenistic stage of the development of ancient Greek civilization (late 4th-1st centuries BC) it received new impulses for existence, being included in the framework of a large state that ensured the autonomy of the polis and its security. By the end of the 1st century. BC e. Hellenistic states were subordinated to Rome.

List of used literature:

1. “History of the world economy”, A. N. Markova (Moscow, 1996).

2. “Economic history of foreign countries”, Golubovich (Moscow, 1995).

3. “World History”, A. N. Markova, G. A. Polyakov (Moscow, 1997).

Autarky– 1. The policy of capitalist states, reactionary in its essence, aimed at creating a closed national economy, isolated from the economies of other countries. 2. A system of a separate national economy, capable of dispensing with the import of essential goods.

Formational approach

According to the formational approach, whose representatives were K. Marx, F. Engels, V.I. Lenin and others, society in its development passes through certain, successive stages - socio-economic formations - primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist and communist. Socio-economic formation- This is a historical type of society based on a certain method of production. Mode of production includes productive forces and production relations. TO productive forces include means of production and people with their knowledge and practical experience in the field of economics. Means of production, in turn, include objects of labor(what is processed in the labor process - land, raw materials, materials) and means of labor(that with the help of which objects of labor are processed - tools, equipment, machinery, production premises). Relations of production- these are relations that arise in the production process and depend on the form of ownership of the means of production.

The formational approach proceeds from the fact that the development of society, various countries and peoples proceeds along certain stages: primitive communal system, slave system, feudalism, capitalism and communism. This process is based on changes occurring in the production sector. Supporters of the formational approach believe that the leading role in social development is played by historical patterns, objective laws, within the framework of which a person acts. Society is steadily moving along the path of progress, since each subsequent socio-economic formation is more progressive than the previous one. Progress is associated with the improvement of productive forces and production relations.

Civilizational approach

Among them, two main varieties can be distinguished.

Theories of staged development of civilization(K. Jaspers, P. Sorokin, W. Rostow, O. Tofler, etc.) consider civilization as a single process of progressive development of humanity, in which certain stages (stages) are distinguished.

Rostow created a theory of stages of economic growth:

1) Traditional society. Agrarian societies with primitive technology, the predominance of agriculture in the economy, class-class structure and the power of large landowners.

2) Transitional company. Agricultural production is growing, a new type of activity is emerging - entrepreneurship and a new type of enterprising people. Centralized states are taking shape and national self-awareness is strengthening.

3) “Shift” stage. Industrial revolutions occur, followed by socio-economic and political transformations.

4) Stage of “maturity”. A scientific and technological revolution is underway, the importance of cities and the size of the urban population are growing.

5) The era of “high mass consumption”. There is a significant growth in the service sector, production of consumer goods and their transformation into the main sector of the economy.

Theories of local civilizations(N.Ya. Danilevsky, A. Toynbee):

Civilization is a closed society, characterized by a set of defining features (selection criteria - religion, form of organization and territorial feature), each civilization has a certain cultural and creative core, around which the forms of spiritual life, socio-political and economic organization inherent in a given civilization are created.

Toynbee considered the driving forces of civilization to be: a challenge posed to civilization from the outside (unfavorable geographical position, lagging behind other civilizations, military aggression); the response of civilization as a whole to this challenge; the activities of great people, talented individuals.

There is a creative minority that leads the inert majority to respond to the challenges posed by civilization. At the same time, the inert majority tends to “put out” and absorb the energy of the minority. This leads to cessation of development, stagnation. Thus, each civilization goes through certain stages: birth, growth, breakdown and disintegration, ending with death and the complete disappearance of civilization.

Toynbee identifies 21 civilizations: Egyptian, Andean, Chinese, Minoan, Sumerian, Mayan, Indus, Hellenic, Western, Orthodox Christian (in Russia), Far Eastern (in Korea and Japan), Iranian, Arab, Hindu, Mexican, Yucatan and Babylonian.

Options for periodizing economic history

There are three theories of periodization of economic history:

1) The theory of historical circulation. It proceeds from the fact that human history is in a constant cycle. Peoples rise and then return to a barbaric state. (Representative Gecombatisto Vico)

2) The theory of civilizations. Representatives Toynbee and Danilevsky believed that the history of mankind is a collection of separate civilizations, each of which goes through the same stages: emergence, growth, decay and death.

3) Karl Marx. Marx's formation theory. He identifies five socio-economic formations that almost every country in the world went through: primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist, communist.

3. Primitive communal model of economic development: main stages of formation and features.

Signs:

Low level of development of productive forces and their slow improvement

Collective appropriation of natural resources and production results

Equal distribution, social equality

Lack of private property, exploitation, classes and state

Low rates of development of society.

Stages:

Paleolithic (ancient Stone Age) – 3 million – 12 thousand years BC.

Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) – 12 – 8 thousand years BC.

Neolithic (New Stone Age) – 8 – 3 thousand years BC.

1st early Paleolithic (up to 100 thousand years BC). Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus, Neanderthals - gathering, fishing and driven hunting.

2-Middle Paleolithic (ended 40 thousand years ago). Cro-Magnon man along with Neanderthals. Articulate speech. Making fire. Stone technology.

3-Late Paleolithic (ended in the 12th millennium BC). Matriarchy. Social prohibitions. Simple appropriative economy - hunting, fishing and gathering. The level of stone technology has increased. Labor as simple cooperation without division. Everything is collectively owned. Labor distribution of production. Exchange between communities.

4-Mesolithic (XII-VIII millennium BC). Individual hunt. Improvement of weapons, appearance of the bow. New techniques in fishing. Lightening the weight and reducing the volume of stone tools. The appropriative economy of low-level hunter-gatherers and fishermen. The principle of collectivization. Use of boats. Development of new lands. Several nearby clans began to unite into a tribe. Patriarchy.

5-Neolithic (VIII-IV millennium BC). The first social division of labor into agriculture and cattle breeding. Then the second social division of labor - the separation of crafts from agriculture - the individualization of labor, the emergence and development of private property. The first craft is pottery production. “Neolithic Revolution” - the emergence of new technology, forms of production and lifestyle, the development of new territories and their effective use. The origin of exchange – because surplus agricultural and handicraft industries appeared. Transition to a sedentary lifestyle.

6th Eneolithic (4-3 thousand BC). The appearance of metals - copper, gold, bronze. The system of irrigated and plow agriculture, increasing wealth inequality.

4. "Neolithic Revolution": causes, essence and consequences.

Essence:

The emergence of new technology, forms of production, human exploration of new territories and their more efficient use were radical in nature. This is the Neolithic Revolution - the transition of humanity from subsisting on hunting and gathering to subsisting on agriculture.

Causes:

A sharp rise in temperature on the planet between the 11th and 9th millennia BC. e. –> reduction in the number of animals -> man had to learn to cultivate cereals and raise livestock in captivity, which brought much more benefits with less labor. As a result, the population increases.

Consequences:

Improvement of productive forces (use of metal at the end of the Eneolithic), commodity production, social division of labor. Individualization of it. The emergence of surplus production, the emergence of exchange, the formation of market relations. The emergence of private property.

5. “Eastern” model of economic development: main features and features.

“Asian mode of production” - a term introduced by K. Marx, characterizes the essence of the socio-economic development of eastern (non-European) societies.

The Asian mode of production was the basis of the first class socio-economic formation, which first emerged in the East at the end of the 4th millennium BC. and existed there until the end of the second millennium AD.

The Eastern (Asian) model of economic development is characterized by the following features:

1. Slaves did not constitute the main productive force of society, i.e. the production of material goods in agriculture and crafts was carried out by people who were considered free.

2. The land was not private, but state or state-community property.

3. A relationship of subjection has developed between the state and community farmers - the absence of rights with the unconditional performance of duties in favor of the state.

4. The state in the East acquired the form of “eastern despotism”, i.e. complete lack of rights of subjects in the face of the state. That is why this type of society is called the “oriental slavery society.”

5. The communities were resilient, which was due to the need to create and maintain an irrigation system for agriculture.

6. The economy was conservative, which led society to stagnation.

Peculiarities:

In the Ancient East, before the rest of the world, a fairly high material culture began to flourish (favorable climatic conditions); it was possible to obtain a significant surplus product with a low level of farming technology and the expenditure of small human resources. As a result, people have free time and the opportunity to devote themselves not only to obtaining food. A division of society into classes arises.

In Eastern society, the state owns everything and exercises effective centralized control over society. Being in power gives you privileges.

The Asian mode of production, unlike the slave-owning one, is based on the exploitation not of slaves, but of community members. The number of slaves is very small; they are not used in large-scale commodity production, but as servants. There are also few artisans and merchants, and trade is less developed compared to the slave system.

Under the Asian mode of production, two most important classes can be distinguished: the peasantry and the bureaucracy. The peasantry is formally free, but the impossibility of selling land and some duties in favor of the state resemble feudal dependence.

The overwhelming number of inhabitants of the states of the Ancient East were employed in the structure of agriculture. But land without water was of no value. Irrigation systems were the property of the state. The creation of such systems required large human resources. Community labor service soon turned into state labor. Thus, the state subjugated the communal farmers, and they practically ceased to be free. They were used in the creation of complex irrigation systems, in the construction of temples and other cyclopean structures. Unlike slaves, this was a free labor force that did not need to be fed and clothed. Their labor could be used very wastefully.

Economically, these countries hardly developed. This is commonly called eastern stagnation. The main reason for stagnation was that the interests of the individual were subordinated to the public. The interests of the community, caste, state. Any entrepreneurial initiative that was impossible without free disposal of property was suppressed.

The main features of the economic development of Ancient Greece.

Slavery in Ancient Greece had a military origin, there was no indentured servitude, and there was industrial use of slaves. The economy of ancient states is the economy of city states (polises). In Ancient Greece there was a military nature of the reproduction of labor force, the political system was military democracy. That is, people served in the branch of the military in which their wealth allowed. The bulk - people of average income - served in the infantry; the rich - in the cavalry (or equipped ships); the poor, armed with what was at their disposal (darts, stones), took part in hostilities; a citizen of the polis and the owner of a piece of land could only be a warrior.

The Athenian type of economy, widespread in Ancient Greece, is characterized as artisanal.

The universal participation of all citizens in military operations gradually led to changes in economic life. The ancient military system (phalanx) ensured ancient reproduction, but at the same time this system absorbed the free peasantry. Peasants who could not cultivate their plots went bankrupt and went to the city.

In Ancient Greece, in Athens, the use of slaves in handicraft production predominated, since the land was not suitable enough for agriculture. Poor roads and a lack of food led to the development of foreign trade. Since the population was regulated in the policies, the excess population had to immigrate. This process was carried out in three directions: to the south (North Africa), to the east (the Black Sea region), to the west (to Spain). This process was called the great Greek colonization.

In Greece, the money change business developed, since each policy had its own coin. The money changers were called trapezits, and the meal exchange offices themselves were called trapezits. Meals are the prototype of a bank, since in addition to exchange, payments for goods, acceptance of deposits, and issuance of loans were carried out there. In general, commodity-monetary relations in Ancient Greece depended on the influx of slaves, and when the flow began to decline, an economic crisis began.

7. Economic development of Ancient Rome: main features and peculiarities.

The periodization of the history of Ancient Rome is based on forms of government, which in turn reflected the socio-political situation: from royal rule at the beginning of history to the dominant empire at its end.

Periods of the history of Ancient Rome:

· 8-6 c. BC e. royal Rome;

· 6-1 c. BC e. republic;

· 1 c. BC e. – 1st century n. e. empire;

· 395 AD e. the collapse of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern (the latter existed until 1453).

Tsarist period: there was no monarchical state. Roman "kings" are military leaders. The social system of Rome during this period was military democracy.

In the VI century. BC e. a state arises. The period of the republic begins. Rome of this period is a city-state similar to the Greek polis. During the wars of conquest, Rome subjugated other Italian states. The conquered peoples recognized their dependence on Rome, but were not included in the Roman polis.

The Roman Republic was aristocratic - power remained in the hands of the family aristocracy. As economic development progressed, urban farming, crafts and trade appeared, and with them the “new rich” who sought to share power with the old Roman nobility and join its ranks. Separate parts of Italy are gradually merging into one state. However, political and property rights remain in the hands of citizens of the Roman polis only - the Quirites -> social tension and political conflicts.

The army becomes the decisive force. Warlords seize power in the country and turn into emperors. In the 1st century BC e. The Roman Republic was replaced by an empire that lasted until the 5th century. n. e.

The leading branch of the economy is agriculture. Fertile soils and a mild climate ensured high yields. The rapid rise of agriculture in the 2nd-1st centuries. BC e. can be explained by three reasons:

widespread introduction of slavery,

development of simple commodity production,

· transition from small-scale farming to production on large areas.

The dominant type of economy is a large slaveholding estate, carrying out commodity production and subsistence farming at the same time. Also, the distribution of land in small plots for rent to landless and land-poor free tenants - colons.

The concentration of land, the spread of private property, the development of crafts, trade, money circulation, and the emergence of a commodity economy required cheap labor. It was difficult to force a free small owner to work, who sought equal rights and was allocated a plot of land. Such labor could be a slave, deprived of all rights and property, received from outside. This explains the aggressiveness of Rome, its endless wars, mass robbery and enslavement of the conquered population. Successful wars contributed to a large influx of slaves and the growth and introduction of slavery.

The use of slave labor destroyed subsistence farming. In the II-I centuries. BC e. landowners and artisans sought not only to obtain a larger surplus product, but also to realize it in money. All this caused increased exploitation of slaves, who became the main commodity producers.

As a result, the number of slaves constantly increased. They became the largest class of Roman society. Slavery spread to agriculture, mining, metallurgy, and construction. The labor of free or semi-dependent workers was still used, but played a subordinate role.

In the II-III centuries. n. e. The crisis of the slave system began.

8. The crisis of the “ancient” model of economic development: causes, essence and consequences.

1. Dominance of small private farms in the economy

2. Formation of a special group of feudal dependent peasants

3. Class struggle

4. Economic and political fragmentation

5. Activation of the barbarians

6. New religions that helped strengthen the power of the new land magnates

Essence:

1. Low community productivity

2. Decline of state farms

3. Difficulties in expanding the production of small farms and independent policies

4. Insufficient political protection in international relations

5. Excessive centralization of power

Consequences:

1. The gradual movement of private slaveholdings to cities

2. Nationalization of most of the rural territory

3. The emergence of self-governing farms within large states

4. Economic decline

5. Development of land ownership independent from the community

6. Decomposition of the community

7. Decline of the cities-centers of the commodity slave economy

9. Main types and features of the feudal economic model.

The main moments in the emergence of the feudal mode of production were the transformation of free producers of material goods and slaves into feudal-dependent peasants and the formation of large feudal landownership. These processes were prepared by feudal tendencies that arose in the process of decomposition of the primitive communal system and ancient society.

The feudal system was formed on the following principles:

· the dominance of large land ownership and the monopoly of feudal lords on it;

· the direct producer - the peasant leads an independent individual farm on land received from the feudal lord for temporary or hereditary use;

· non-economic coercion, which is a form of dependence of the direct commodity producer on the feudal lord;

· rent relations, payment in kind – corvée, quitrent;

· class inferiority of peasants (dependence);

· dominance of subsistence farming and small-scale production; the predominance of the agricultural sector of the economy;

· primitive level of technology used in production (individual production skills are of particular importance);

· class character of society;

· hierarchical structure of the feudal class;

· corporate relations.

Feudal systems developed unevenly in different parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa. The process of development of feudalism in each country had significant regional characteristics, which allows us to talk about different types of feudal systems.

Main types of feudal systems:

· European feudalism;

· Eastern feudalism.

European feudalism is the result of the implementation of three types of development of feudalism:

· Birth directly from the primitive communal system of barbarians, bypassing the stage of a developed slave society. In Europe, examples of this option are England, Scandinavia, Trans-Rhine Germany, Rus', Poland, and the Czech Republic.

· The emergence on the basis of feudal relations ripening within a slave society, formed at the last stage of development of the primitive communal system of barbarians. This type of genesis of feudalism found its embodiment in Northern Gaul, among a number of South Slavic peoples.

· The emergence on the basis of a synthesis of elements of late antique society with feudal relations that were formed in barbarian societies, with a clear predominance of ancient principles. This path was typical for Byzantium, Italy, Southern Gaul, and Visigothic Spain.

Eastern feudalism developed on the basis of the Asian mode of production. Its main features:

· predominance of state feudal land ownership;

· preservation of specific forms of communal organization of the peasantry;

· special forms of organization of the feudal class;

· high degree of state centralization.

10. Formation and development of the feudal economy in Western Europe: stages and main directions.

The feudal society of the Middle Ages in its development passed three main stages:

· Early Middle Ages (V-X centuries). During this period, the first shoots of feudalism appeared: land was concentrated among the upper strata of society; a layer of dependent peasantry was formed

· Developed feudalism (XI-XV centuries) – the period of maturity of the feudal economy. Characterized by the formation of feudal cities, the development of the internal market, and commodity production.

· The Late Middle Ages (late 15th-mid 18th centuries) – the era of the decomposition of feudal society, the emergence of a market economy.

The natural conditions in Greece differ from the natural conditions of the ancient Eastern countries in that for normal farming there is no need to build complex hydraulic structures, as in the ancient East.

This created favorable conditions for the development of private ownership of land, of a plot of land, and the basis of the production cell was not the cumbersome royal or temple economy or communal production with its petty regulation, which presupposed a huge administrative apparatus, but a small private economy built on the rational basis of strict exploitation of slave labor from relatively high returns.

The process of historical development of Greek society took place within the framework of small, internally united republics, based on a civil collective of moderately prosperous farmers.

Social structure of policies assumed the existence of three main classes: the class of slave owners, free small producers and slaves of various categories.

One of the most important features of the social structure in Greek city-states was the existence of such a social category as civil collective , i.e. the totality of full citizens of a given policy. TO citizens of the policy belonged to indigenous people living in the area for several generations, owning an ancestral plot of land, taking part in the activities of popular assemblies and having a place in the phalanx of heavily armed hoplites.

Ownership of a land plot was considered as a full guarantee that a citizen would fulfill his duties to the polis, to the entire civil collective.

In Greece, mid-5th century. BC. An economic system was formed that existed without any significant changes until the end of the 4th century. BC. and which can be defined as a classic slave economy.

The Greek economy as a whole was not homogeneous. Among the numerous Greek policies, two main economic types can be distinguished, differing in their structure.

For the first type of policy(agrarian)- characterized by the absolute predominance of agriculture, the weak development of crafts and trade (the most striking example is Sparta, as well as the policies of Arcadia, Boeotia, Thessaly, etc.).

Other type of policy can be roughly defined as trade and craft, in the structure of which the role of craft production and trade was significantly higher than in policies of the first type.

It was in the policies of the second type that the now classical slave-owning economy was created, which had a rather complex and dynamic structure, and the productive forces developed especially quickly (examples of such policies were Athens, Corinth, Megara, Rhodes, etc.). Polis of this type set the tone for economic development and were the leading economic centers of Greece in the 5th - 4th centuries. BC.

Determining the leading type of Greek policies does not mean that agriculture faded into the background and ceased to be an important sector of the economy. Agriculture in the trade and craft policies was leading, along with trade and craft, and was the basis of the economic system.

In general, agriculture in Greece V - IV centuries. BC. had the following features: a diversified nature, the predominance of labor-intensive intensive crops (viticulture, olive growing), the introduction of slave labor as the basis of agriculture, the commodity orientation of the slave estate as a new type of organization of agricultural production.

Estates of Athenian large landowners of the 6th-5th centuries. BC. Most likely, they were not a single centralized production provided by slave force, but a collection of several relatively small plots, perhaps located in different parts of the policy and either rented out or processed under other conditions.

It should be noted that the described structure of large Athenian land ownership was supposed to experience a serious internal crisis as the legal and property status of Athenian citizenship strengthened, its self-awareness grew, the wealth of the Athenian polis increased, which found itself at the head of the vast First Maritime Union, the system of Athenian democracy was strengthened with its thoughtful policy of material support for poor citizens, intensive development of urban life and urban crafts.

First of all, the city’s own population, which had lost contact with agriculture, increased sharply, and consequently, the need for agricultural products increased. On the other hand, strengthening the property and social position of medium and small landowners in the state was supposed to deprive large landowners of the sources of labor necessary to cultivate their plots.

In Athens in the 5th century. BC. in the agricultural sector of the economy, the need for marketable products and additional labor arose and developed, which in those conditions could only be slave labor.

The general economic situation in Greece in general and in Athens in particular (the development of urban life, the increasing need of the urban population for agricultural products, the increase in the number of slaves, the reduction of the Zevgite stratum and other signs of the crisis of the polis) created more favorable conditions for the emergence and spread of such farms.

Crafts and trade could not develop without attracting additional labor. This additional labor was provided by the rural population, which, due to the development of cities and the spread of slave estates, was forced out of the countryside and accumulated within the city walls.

This type of farm is defined as a commercial villa, since in the very structure of the estate the culture oriented toward sale stood out sharply in its share.

The commodity estate was connected to the city market in a variety of ways, of which the main three were: 1) product manufacturing in the villa(for example, preparing wine, oil) and calling it to a neighboring city to the market, where it was sold; 2) preparation of the product and its sale here on villa buyer, who then transported the product to the city market on his own; 3) sale of standing crops to a buyer, who collected the harvest on his own, prepared the product, transported it to the city and sold it on the market.

The basis of handicraft production in general was the production of metal and necessary products from it, i.e. metallurgy and metalworking. During the classical era, Greek craftsmen obtained more quantity and better quality metal than their predecessors, and iron entered production and everyday life more deeply and widely than ever before.

Greek craft is characterized by a close connection with the market, where the artisan sold his products, bought raw materials, tools, slaves, and food for their sustenance. The development of business activity in Greek commercial and industrial centers, the success of Greek crafts, the specialization of ergasteria with stable sources of replenishment of slaves made crafting a profitable business.

A fairly populous population of trade and craft cities with its diverse needs, which increasingly increased with the development of city life, a lack of grain and various types of raw materials for crafts, on the one hand, surpluses of wine and oil, large reserves of various handicraft products, on the other, created favorable conditions for the rapid development of Greek trade in general.

The development of commodity production and a large volume of trade transactions required the improvement of settlement operations. The primitive exchange of goods for goods or for pieces of currency metal, which constantly needed to be weighed, was inconvenient. A coin became a more convenient means of payment: a small piece of currency (gold, silver, bronze) metal with a strictly defined weight, guaranteed by the state that issued this coin.

The economic system that developed in the trade and craft policies and in Greece in the 5th - 4th centuries. BC. in general, could not exist without involving large masses of slaves in labor, the absolute number and proportion of which in Greek society in the 5th - 4th centuries. BC. increased continuously. Private farms became the main production cells, be it small peasant plots and slaveholding estates in the choir or ergasterias of different sizes in the city.

State or temple farms did not develop in Greece as much as in ancient Eastern societies. All these features of the economic structure led to the formation of a special system of class relations, which can be defined as a developed slave society, or classical slavery.

The system of classical slavery was formed in a more or less complete form in developed trade and craft policies (Athens), while in agricultural policies (Sparta) the social class structure was distinguished by a number of features. The most striking example is Athenian society, the characteristics of which make it possible to show the features of the social-class structure of trade and craft policies, which played a leading role in the historical development of ancient Greece in the 5th - 4th centuries. BC.

Greek society of the classical era was divided into three main classes: the slave class, the class of small free producers and the slave owner class.

For Greek city policies V - IV centuries. BC. characterized by the introduction of slavery into all spheres of life and production. The total number of slaves increases, and the slave class turns into the main class in ancient Greek society.

The slave was considered by Greek legislation and public opinion as an instrument of production gifted with speech, as a half-man. The slave was in full power, was the property of the slave owner, the latter owned his working time, his life.

Slaves were not homogeneous. Among them were groups that differed in their interests: slaves engaged in crafts and trade, agricultural slaves, slave miners, slaves engaged in household work and personal services, and finally, state slaves in a somewhat privileged position: policemen, jailers, scribes, counters, heralds.

The structure of the police collective, the rather high proportion of the middle strata of the population, and the implementation of measures to maintain the stability of the civil collective did not contribute to a sharp stratification of property. The fortunes of slave owners were relatively modest; there was no layer of fabulously wealthy magnates with enormous funds at their disposal.

In Greek city-states with a republican system there was no court nobility, state bureaucracy, a military class separated from society, or a powerful priesthood. The Greek slave-owning class consisted of the owners of land holdings, craft workshops worked by slaves, trading ships, sums of money or slave contingents that could be leased to others and thus profit from their labor.

The Greek slave-owning class was not homogeneous; it was divided into several factions. One of the factions belonged to representatives of the ancient land aristocracy, who preserved family traditions. Another faction of Greek slave owners, especially strong in economically developed policies, was a stratum whose main interests were related to the prosperity of trade and crafts, commodity production and monetary relations.

Greek slave society consisted not only of slaves and slave owners. Along with them lived and worked small free producers - farmers, owners or tenants of small plots of land, owners of craft workshops, retailers, day laborers or sailors serving maritime transport, poor urban people. In terms of its numbers, this class was not only not inferior, but somewhat exceeded the total number of the slave class, i.e. was one of the most populous classes of Greek society.

Small producers worked on plots of land, in craft workshops, mines or in construction, where, as a rule, they did not use slave labor.

Composition of the class of free small producers was quite colorful; Three main groups can be distinguished: small landowners; artisans and traders, having civil rights; artisans and methic traders.

Class and social structure of slave society V - IV centuries. BC. was quite complex and dismembered: antagonisms and contradictions between the main classes were complicated by sharp clashes within each class, both slave owners and free small producers. Social relationships in Greek city-states were a tangled tangle of contradictions of various orders.

However, this complex of differences in social conflicts was created and manifested in this or that political or social conflict on the basis of the main antagonism of the era: the tension between the class of skillfully and cruelly exploited slaves and the slave-owning class as a whole.

Other type of social structure formed in agricultural policies. The absolute predominance of agriculture and the natural nature of its production, the dominance of small land use did not create the need for additional labor or slave labor. That is why Sparta is characterized by a low level of development of slave relations and the predominance of various forms of dependent or semi-dependent labor.

Spartan society was also characterized by the incompleteness of social differentiation within each class, which left an imprint on the nature of class relationships and contradictions in Sparta, which most often manifested themselves in the form of organized uprisings of helots or the struggle for power between numerous cliques, which was of an apex nature.