Economic and foreign economic costs of unemployment. Economic and social costs of unemployment

Unemployment - the presence in the country of people who make up part of the economically active population who are able and willing to work for hire, but cannot find work.

In a market economy, there is always a certain number of people who are unemployed. However, not every person without a job will be considered unemployed. Children, disabled people or those who have other sources of income cannot be considered unemployed. Thus, unemployed- these are those who do not have a job or any income, but are looking for it and are ready to start working immediately. People who have full-time or part-time work are considered busy. The total number of people who have a job - employed and those who do not have a job - the unemployed, form workforce:

L = E + U,

WhereL- work force,E-busy,U- unemployed.

Unemployment rate is defined as the percentage ratio of the number of unemployed to the labor force:

There are three main types of unemployment: frictional, structural and cyclical.

Frictional unemployment associated with searching for and waiting for work. The occurrence of this type of unemployment is influenced by two main reasons. First, people are constantly changing their economic activities—young people graduate from school and enter the labor force, older people leave the labor force, and those in work may stop working temporarily, for example to raise children. Secondly, production conditions are constantly changing: some enterprises close and lay off workers, new companies begin production and hire workers. These constant changes lead to frictional unemployment. Unemployed people usually don't take the first job they come across. They try to find a workplace that best suits their abilities and level of professional training.

Frictional unemployment is a phenomenon that is constantly inherent in the economy. The number of frictional unemployed depends on the ratio of those who entered and left the labor force, and on the ratio of newly created and eliminated jobs.

Frictional unemployment is relatively short-term in nature - this category of unemployed people have ready-made skills that they can sell on the labor market.

Structural unemployment associated with technological changes in production, leading to a reduction in the demand for labor in certain industries. The influence of STP (scientific and technological progress) is felt in such a way that some industries become obsolete, which leads to the dismissal of workers in these industries.

Structural unemployment is forced and more long-term in nature than frictional unemployment, since obtaining a new job for this category of unemployed is associated with the need for retraining in a new specialty.

Frictional and structural unemployment in total form natural rate of unemployment.

Cyclical unemployment occurs as a result of an economic downturn. It represents the deviation of the actual unemployment rate from the natural one. During periods of economic recovery, there is no cyclical unemployment, but during periods of recession, it increases sharply. In practice, measuring frictional, structural and cyclical unemployment is extremely difficult, as is dividing it into separate forms.

American economist Arthur Oaken (Okun) determined the relationship between changes in the unemployment rate and changes in GDP: an increase in unemployment by 1% leads to a reduction in GNP by 3%. More recent studies have shown that a 1% increase in unemployment reduces GDP by 2%. This dependence is called Okun's law:

Where U– actual production volume; Y* is the potential volume of GDP corresponding to the natural level of unemployment; U– actual unemployment rate; U* - natural unemployment rate; β is the empirical coefficient of sensitivity of GDP volume to the dynamics of cyclical unemployment.

Economic costs of unemployment:

According to Okun's law, this reduction in national production and income levels.
Loss of “human capital”(human capital refers to knowledge, skills and abilities that contribute to the growth of labor productivity and human earnings).
An increase in the number of offenses and aggravation of social tension.

Consequences of unemployment

Decrease in income

Mental health problems

Loss of qualifications

Economic consequences (loss of GDP)

Worsening crime situation

The presence of cyclical unemployment represents a serious macroeconomic problem, serves as a manifestation of macroeconomic instability, and evidence of underemployment of resources.

There are economic and non-economic consequences of unemployment, which manifest themselves both at the individual level and at the societal level.

Non-economic consequences of unemployment are the psychological, social and political consequences of job loss.

At the individual level, the non-economic consequences of unemployment are that if a person cannot find a job for a long time, this often leads to psychological stress, despair, nervous (even suicide) and cardiovascular diseases, and family breakdown. The loss of a stable source of income can push a person to crime (theft and even murder) and antisocial behavior.

At the level of society, this, first of all, means an increase in social tension, up to and including political upheavals. It is no coincidence that American President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, explaining the reason for the development and implementation of the “New Deal” policy to get out of the Great Depression, the main problem of which was huge unemployment (every fourth person was unemployed in the United States during this period), wrote that by doing so he wanted "prevent a revolution of despair." Indeed, military coups and revolutions are associated precisely with a high level of social and economic instability. In addition, the social consequences of unemployment are an increase in the level of morbidity and mortality in the country, as well as an increase in the crime rate.

The costs of unemployment should also include those losses incurred by society in connection with the costs of education, vocational training and providing a certain level of qualifications to people who, as a result, are unable to apply them, and, therefore, recoup them.

1. lost output - deviation of actual GDP from potential as a result of underutilization of the total labor force (the higher the unemployment rate, the greater the gap in GDP);

2. reduction in federal budget revenues as a result of decreased tax revenues and decreased revenue from the sale of goods;

3. direct losses in personal disposable income and a decrease in the standard of living of persons who have become unemployed and members of their families;

4. increased costs for society to protect workers from losses caused by unemployment: payment of benefits, implementation of programs to stimulate employment growth, professional retraining and employment of the unemployed, etc.

Economic consequences of unemployment at the individual level consist in the loss of income or part of the income (i.e., a decrease in current income), as well as in the loss of qualifications (which is especially bad for people in new professions) and therefore a decrease in the chances of finding a well-paid, prestigious job in the future (i.e., a possible decrease in the level future income).

Economic consequences of unemployment at the level of society as a whole consist in underproduction of gross domestic product, the lag of actual GDP from potential GDP. The presence of cyclical unemployment (when the actual level of unemployment exceeds its natural rate) means that resources are not fully used. Therefore, actual GDP is less than potential GDP (GDP at full employment of resources). The lag (gap) of actual GDP from potential GDP (GDP gap) is calculated as the percentage ratio of the difference between actual and potential GDP to the value of potential GDP:

where Y is actual GDP, and Y* is potential GDP.

The relationship between the lag in output (at that time GDP) and the level of cyclical unemployment was empirically derived, based on a study of US statistical data over a number of decades, by the economic adviser to President J. Kennedy, the American economist Arthur Okun. In the early 60s, he proposed a formula that showed the relationship between the gap between actual output and potential output and the level of cyclical unemployment. This relationship is called "Oken's law".

The formula for the GDP gap is written on the left side of the equation. On the right side, u is the actual unemployment rate, u* is the natural unemployment rate, therefore (u - u*) is the cyclical unemployment rate, b - Okun's coefficient(b > 0). This coefficient shows by what percentage the actual output is reduced compared to the potential output (i.e. by how many percent the gap increases) if the actual unemployment rate increases by 1 percentage point, i.e. This sensitivity factor lag of GDP to changes in the level of cyclical unemployment. For the US economy in those years, according to Okun's calculations, it was 2.5%. For other countries and other times it may be numerically different. The minus sign in front of the expression on the right side of the equation means that the relationship between actual GDP and the level of cyclical unemployment is inverse (the higher the unemployment rate, the lower the value of actual GDP compared to potential).

The lag of any year's actual GDP can be calculated not only in relation to potential output, but also in relation to the actual GDP of the previous year. A formula for such a calculation was also proposed by A.Ouken:

where Y t is the actual GDP of a given year, Y t - 1 is the actual GDP of the previous year, i.e. on the left side of the equation is written the formula for the lag of GDP by year, u t is the actual unemployment rate of a given year, u t – 1 is the actual unemployment rate of the previous year, 3% is the growth rate of potential GDP due to: a) population growth, b) growth in capital-labor ratio and c) scientific and technological progress; 2 is a coefficient that shows how much actual GDP decreases when the unemployment rate increases by 1 percentage point (this means that if the unemployment rate increases by 1 percentage point, actual GDP decreases by 2%). This coefficient was calculated by Okun based on an analysis of empirical (statistical) data for the American economy, so it may be different for other countries.

Unemployment- one of the most difficult problems of modern society, affecting all countries. Unemployment as an economic phenomenon occurs when part of the population capable and willing to work cannot find work in their specialty or find employment at all.

When defining the category “unemployment”, it is necessary to clearly distinguish between the concepts of “unemployment” and “unemployment” of the population. Official statistics in Russia recognize as unemployed only those persons who are willing and able to work, are looking for work and are registered with the employment service.

For a market economy, both excessive unemployment is harmful, since it indicates underproduction and underemployment (an economic system operates below its production possibility curve), and excessive employment, since it reduces the flexibility and adaptability of the economy to both internal and external changes.

Unemployment arises due to the imperfection of the market mechanism, as well as for other reasons. It is caused by the excess of the number of people wanting to find work (labor supply) over the number of available jobs that match the profile and qualifications of applicants for these jobs (labor demand).

To analyze the dynamics of unemployment, not only the value of the level (norm) of unemployment is used. The length of time that an average person remains unemployed is the duration of unemployment indicator.

The following types of unemployment are distinguished:

Friction;

Structural;

Cyclic.

Frictional unemployment reflects staff turnover associated with:

With the change of jobs;

Change of place of residence;

Getting an education;

Coming out of maternity leave;

Moving from a low-paying job to a higher-paying or interesting one.

This form of unemployment is usually limited to short periods, and: with an increase in the well-being of citizens, frictional unemployment may increase; its reduction is possible as the methods of collecting information on vacant jobs improve.

Since some workers quit of their own free will, frictional unemployment is considered inevitable. as some economists argue, desirable for the following reasons:

Frictional unemployment is predominantly voluntary;

Its result is an increase in the well-being of citizens and a more rational distribution of labor resources;

Typically, frictional unemployment affects 2-3% of the economically active population.

Structural unemployment arises due to a mismatch between the structure of labor supply and demand:

Consumer preferences change over time;

This, in turn, causes a change in the structure of overall labor demand;

Therefore, the need for some types of professions (for example, miners, officers, etc.) is decreasing;

Demand for other specialties, including new ones, can grow rapidly.

Structural unemployment is associated with technological changes in the economy, which result in a depreciation of the skill level of certain categories of the workforce:

People are usually slow to respond to the emergence of new professions;

As a result, the structure of labor supply does not correspond to the structure of demand;

Some workers do not have the skills required by the employer and become unemployed; In case of structural unemployment, the employer is often the initiator of dismissal.

The structural unemployed primarily include workers with low qualifications or university graduates with no experience. The structurally unemployed cannot immediately get a job without retraining or changing their place of residence. Therefore, the structural form of unemployment is predominantly pronounced and long-term in nature and is considered a more serious problem for the economy. The presence of structural unemployment is quite understandable in a modern market economy. Structural unemployment within the labor market requires:

Expansion of the personnel training system;

Improving the qualifications of employees;

Synchronized and coordinated work of employment services with enterprises.

Combination of frictional and structural unemployment forms the level of natural unemployment corresponding to the potential volume of GNP or the situation of macroeconomic equilibrium.

Natural unemployment represents the best labor reserve for the economy. These workers have high mobility and are able to quickly move (to another industry or region) depending on production needs.

A type of natural unemployment is "unemployment waiting"Workers become unemployed because, at a certain desired wage level, the supply of labor exceeds the demand for labor, and people simply "wait" to get a job at the desired wage rate.

Cyclical unemployment arises in connection with the decline in production during the industrial crisis:

Changes in the situation in the markets for goods and services lead to the fact that many industries reduce or even stop production, while laying off workers;

In an economic downturn, when aggregate demand for goods and services decreases, there is a reduction in production and, consequently, a reduction in personnel;

The cyclical form of unemployment is characteristic of the depression and recession phases of the economic cycle, that is, for periods of decline in business activity;

With the transition to recovery and recovery, the number of unemployed becomes smaller;

The scale and duration of the cyclical form of unemployment reaches a peak during an economic downturn and a minimum during recovery;

To smooth out the negative consequences of this type of unemployment, it is necessary to develop and adopt special employment programs financed by the state.

The concept of "full employment" does not mean the complete absence of unemployment. Frictional and structural forms of unemployment are absolutely inevitable. Therefore, the unemployment rate at full employment is equal to the sum of frictional and structural forms of unemployment. In other words, the full employment unemployment rate occurs when cyclical unemployment is zero.

There are more than 20 forms of unemployment in the economy, the most commonly identified are:

Institutional;

Voluntary;

Hidden;

Stagnant.

Institutional unemployment arises as a result of insufficiently efficient organization of the labor market. In Russia, for example, the population often does not have the opportunity to obtain information about available jobs. This leads to ineffective job searches and an artificial increase in the unemployment rate.

Voluntary unemployment caused by the reluctance of certain categories of people, for example housewives, to work under certain conditions.

Voluntary unemployment can also be caused by:

People’s choice of a unique lifestyle;

Psychological attitude towards avoiding work;

Limited needs;

The opportunity to live financially at the expense of other people;

Other reasons.

Hidden unemployment includes those employed during a part-time working week or part of the working day, as well as persons formally employed (that is, when the employee is only on the payroll, but does not actually work). This category also includes workers on forced leave without pay.

The features of the hidden form of unemployment include the following:

This type of unemployment can turn into an open form at any moment;

The scale of hidden unemployment is very difficult to determine.

Stagnant unemployment includes people who have been unable to find work for a long time. And although the size of this form of unemployment is insignificant (according to the ILO, it is less than 1%), in terms of the degree of negative consequences, stagnant unemployment has no equal. People who have not been able to find a job for a long time lose knowledge, skills, qualifications, and are morally depressed. The reason for the stagnant form of unemployment lies in the lack of demand for some professions. This problem is also typical for small towns or settlements focused on a specific production, where the opportunity to choose a job (occupation) is extremely small.

Quantitative analysis of unemployment is usually carried out using two complementary indicators. The first indicator is the unemployment rate, which reflects the share of unemployed in the total working-age population:

To obtain the labor force indicator, it is necessary to subtract the number of children and adolescents under 16 years of age from the total population of the country; pupils and full-time students of educational institutions; pensioners (for old age and other reasons); people in prison; persons running a household; incompetent citizens (persons in psychiatric hospitals); military personnel.

The labor force indicator will consist of two main elements - employed and unemployed. In this regard, the unemployment rate can be presented as follows:

The second indicator is the average duration of unemployment - the time during which a person remained unemployed. For the economic system, the option will be more preferable when the duration of unemployment is short, even at a fairly high level, than the option when long-term unemployment is combined with a low unemployment rate. The first of the described cases will reflect a situation where the economic system adapts and adjusts to any changes. Perhaps this is due to the rapid spread and implementation of technical innovations, changes in the structure of social reproduction (the development and expansion of some industries, the contraction of others, which causes a flow of labor resources) and other reasons.

The economic consequences of unemployment at the individual level are the loss of income or part of the income (i.e., a decrease in current income), as well as the loss of qualifications (which is especially bad for people in advanced professions) and therefore a decrease in the chances of finding a high-paying, prestigious job in the future (i.e. .e. a possible decrease in the level of future income).

The economic consequences of unemployment at the level of society as a whole consist in the underproduction of gross domestic product, the lag of actual GDP from potential GDP. The presence of cyclical unemployment (when the actual level of unemployment exceeds its natural rate) means that resources are not fully used. Therefore, actual GDP is less than potential GDP (GDP at full employment of resources). The lag (gap) of actual GDP from potential GDP (GDP gap) is calculated as the percentage ratio of the difference between actual and potential GDP to the value of potential GDP:

where Y is actual GDP, and Y* is potential GDP.

The formula for the GDP gap is written on the left side of the equation. On the right side, u is the actual unemployment rate, u* is the natural unemployment rate, therefore (u - u*) is the cyclical unemployment rate, b is the Okun coefficient (b > 0). This coefficient shows by what percentage the actual output is reduced compared to the potential output (i.e. by how many percent the gap increases) if the actual unemployment rate increases by 1 percentage point, i.e. this is the sensitivity coefficient of the GDP lag to changes in the level of cyclical unemployment. For the US economy in those years, according to Okun's calculations, it was 2.5%. For other countries and other times it may be numerically different. The minus sign in front of the expression on the right side of the equation means that the relationship between actual GDP and the level of cyclical unemployment is inverse (the higher the unemployment rate, the lower the value of actual GDP compared to potential).

where Yt is the actual GDP of a given year, Yt - 1 is the actual GDP of the previous year, i.e. on the left side of the equation is written the formula for the lag of GDP by year, u t is the actual unemployment rate of a given year, u t – 1 is the actual unemployment rate of the previous year, 3% is the growth rate of potential GDP due to: a) population growth, b) growth in capital-labor ratio and c) scientific and technological progress; 2 is a coefficient that shows how much actual GDP decreases when the unemployment rate increases by 1 percentage point (this means that if the unemployment rate increases by 1 percentage point, actual GDP decreases by 2%). This coefficient was calculated by Okun based on an analysis of empirical (statistical) data for the American economy, so it may be different for other countries.

Related information.

Unemployment is an integral feature of a market economy. Unemployment is the temporary lack of employment of the economically active population.

Achieving a high level of employment is one of the main goals of the state's macroeconomic policy. An economic system that creates an additional number of jobs sets the task of increasing the amount of social product and thereby satisfying the material needs of the population to a greater extent. The unemployment rate is one of the key indicators for determining the general state of the economy and for assessing its effectiveness.

Economic theory uses two indicators that can paint an objective picture of economic instability in the labor market. This is the unemployment rate and its average duration.

The unemployment rate is used to measure the scale of unemployment and is measured as the proportion of officially registered unemployed people to the number of people employed in production.

The duration of unemployment characterizes the average time of interruption from work.

There are frictional, structural, institutional, cyclical, and voluntary unemployment.

Frictional unemployment reflects staff turnover associated with changes in jobs and place of residence. Among the total workforce, some part is constantly on the move, moving to new jobs. This type of unemployment includes people who are unemployed due to job changes and expect to start work at a new job within a week, as well as workers in industries where temporary layoffs are the norm without affecting people's overall income level , for example, in construction. During the period of introduction of new achievements of technological progress, such a movement becomes not only inevitable, but also more intense. To some extent, this unemployment is desirable because many workers move from low-productivity, low-paying jobs to higher-paying, more productive jobs. This means higher incomes for workers and a more rational distribution of labor resources, and therefore a larger real volume of real national product.

Structural unemployment is essentially a deepening of frictional unemployment. Over time, important changes occur in the structure of consumer demand and in technology, which, in turn, change the structure of overall labor demand. Due to such changes, the demand for some types of professions decreases or ceases altogether. Demand for other professions, including new ones, is increasing. Unemployment arises because... the workforce responds slowly to this change and its structure does not correspond to the new job structure.

The difference between structural and frictional unemployment is very vague. The significant difference is that the frictional unemployed have skills that they can sell, while the structural unemployed cannot immediately get a job without retraining. Frictional unemployment is more short-term in nature, while structural unemployment is more long-term and is therefore considered a more serious problem.

Cyclical unemployment is caused by a decline in production during an industrial crisis, depression, recession, i.e. a phase of the business cycle that is characterized by insufficient total, or aggregate, spending. When aggregate demand for goods and services decreases, employment falls and unemployment rises. For this reason, cyclical unemployment is sometimes called demand-side unemployment. With the transition to recovery and recovery, the number of unemployed usually becomes smaller.

Thus, unemployment is a characteristic feature of a market economy. Therefore, full employment is nonsense and incompatible with the idea of a market economy. At the same time, the concept of “full employment” does not mean the complete absence of unemployment. Economists consider frictional and structural unemployment to be completely inevitable, therefore, the unemployment rate at full employment is equal to the sum of the frictional and structural unemployment rates. In other words, the full employment unemployment rate occurs when cyclical unemployment is zero. The unemployment rate at full employment is called the natural unemployment rate.

Economic and non-economic costs of unemployment.

High unemployment is both an economic and social problem. It is an economic problem because it wastes valuable resources. Social - because it is the source of incalculable suffering experienced by the unemployed trying to make ends meet. During periods of high unemployment, economic failures affect the emotional sphere of people and their family life.

Economic Costs of Unemployment

When the unemployment rate rises, it means that society is effectively abandoning all those goods and services that the unemployed could produce, as if cars, houses, clothes and other goods were simply drowned in the ocean.

Losses during periods of high unemployment are the largest documented losses in a modern economy. They are many times greater than losses at the micro level due to the emergence of a monopoly or than losses associated with the introduction of tariffs and quotas.

Non-economic costs of unemployment

Unemployment is more than an economic disaster, it is also a social disaster. Depression leads to inactivity, and inactivity leads to loss of skills, loss of self-esteem, decline in moral values, family breakdown, and social and political unrest.

The economic costs of unemployment are undoubtedly great, but the non-economic costs - social costs - are simply enormous. No amount of money can adequately express the scale of those socio-psychological disasters that occur during periods of high and stable forced unemployment. Losing a job is a great personal tragedy.

Despite the objective nature of unemployment, the social losses it generates are obvious:

1. The standard of living of the unemployed family decreases, since unemployment benefits are less than wages.
2. The psychological state of the unemployed worsens, conflicts in the family become frequent, etc.
3. Unemployment not only undermines the financial situation, but also entails severe social phenomena: crime, drug addiction, prostitution. The number of suicides is rapidly growing: 32% of deaths are voluntary death.

In this regard, one of the functions of the state is to regulate employment and eliminate the negative consequences of unemployment. In particular, employment centers have been created in every city or district that perform the following functions: pay unemployment benefits, help the unemployed find work, and retrain new, in-demand professions. These centers also provide psychological assistance to people left without work. The state, in addition, can provide financial support to those enterprises where mass layoffs are planned, in order to preserve or modernize jobs.

When assessing work as a socio-economic phenomenon, it is impossible to say unequivocally whether it is good or bad. From the point of view of the person left without work, this can be a tragedy. However, from the point of view of economic dynamics, this phenomenon is an objective necessity. Another thing is that the state must “absorb” its negative consequences, and workers must be prepared for professional and labor mobility in order to get a job.

Okun's Law.

Although deep depressions may no longer be a major threat to advanced market economies, high unemployment continues to plague modern mixed economies.

The most painful consequence of any recession is an increase in the unemployment rate. As output declines, firms' demand for labor decreases, so new workers are not hired and old ones are fired.

Unemployment changes along with output. The exact nature of this relationship was first identified by Arthur Okun and is now known as Okun's law.

Okun's Law states that for every 2% decline in actual GDP relative to potential GDP, there is a 1 percentage point increase in the unemployment rate. So, if actual GDP started out at 100% of its potential and then fell to 98%, then the unemployment rate should rise by 1 percentage point, say from 6 to 7%.

An important corollary of Okun's law is that actual GDP must increase at the same rate as potential GDP just for the unemployment rate to remain constant. As the saying goes, “You have to run just to stay in one place.” Moreover, if you want to reduce the unemployment rate, actual GDP must grow faster than potential GDP.

Note 1

For any society, unemployment always carries certain economic and social costs.

Economic Costs of Unemployment

As a rule, the manifestation of the economic consequences of unemployment comes down to the following:

partial loss of gross national product by society;
decline in the standard of living of the unemployed;
loss of qualifications by unemployed people;
the need to allocate budget allocations for unemployment benefits.

Definition 1

Economic costs can be measured as the cost of unproduced products, a reduction in tax contributions to all levels of the state budget, an increase in costs for the payment of social benefits, and the maintenance of government agencies in the field of labor, employment and social security.

The accumulated scientific and educational potential of society is devalued, underutilized, and the quality of life of the unemployed and their families is deteriorating. The share of the economically active population is decreasing due to negative trends in the birth rate, rising mortality, declining life expectancy, and the outflow of qualified personnel abroad.

Our country is characterized by a situation where, due to privatization, the implementation of reforms, the transformation of organizational and legal forms and forms of ownership of enterprises, with a drop in production and job cuts, the process of leaving highly qualified personnel from the real sector of the economy has intensified. At the same time, many of them were unable to find a worthy application for their skills in the market, cannot find employment in their specialty, as a result, not only the employee himself lost, but society as a whole.

The most significant economic cost comes from the loss of gross national product (GNP). With the actual level of unemployment remaining unchanged compared to the previous year, the growth rate of GNP is annually about 2-3%. This is due to population growth, accumulation of capital and the development of scientific and technological progress. Each 1% increase in the unemployment rate per year leads to a decrease in the growth rate of real GNP by 2-3%.

Social costs of unemployment

The social costs of unemployment can manifest themselves:

in the loss of the totality of most of the statuses that a person had in life: prestige, self-respect, self-affirmation;
in removing a person from his usual communities: work collective, circle of acquaintances and friends;
in increasing the number of suicides, mental illness and crime, especially in industrialized regions.

Definition 2

Unemployment increases socially negative processes, tension and “social pathology” of society. The unemployed not only cannot apply their knowledge and skills and will lose their livelihood, but also lose their social significance, become psychologically unstable and unsure of their future.

In general, the total costs of society, due to the increase in government costs to eliminate the negative consequences of unemployment, are quite large.

Mass unemployment can be called one of the most acute socio-economic problems and a real threat to the very existence of modern society and the civilized format of relations between people. Therefore, the fight against mass unemployment is of significant importance and requires special attention, first of all, for the governments of the most developed Western countries. The practical policies of the governments of these countries always give employment improvement programs one of the key places.

Note 2

The relevance and seriousness of the economic and social costs of unemployment is the basis for developing a strategy for stabilizing employment and regulating the labor market at the state level.